Class L 







Book. OLi 



Copyright}!^. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSED 




FOREST INTERIOR. SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA. 



ESSENTIALS OF 
WOODWORKING 

A TEXTBOOK FOR SCHOOLS 



BY 



Ira Samuel Griffith, A. B 

*-. 

ILLUSTRATIONS BY 

Edwin Victor Lawrence 




The Manual Arts Press 



Peoria, Illinois 



X 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Tv/0 Copies Received 

NOV \2 1908 

^ Copyngnt entry _, 
CLAsk O- KXc, No, 



\ 






Copyright 

Ira Samuel Griffith 

1908 



^-33^90 



PREFACE. 

An experience, somewhat extended, in teaching aca- 
demic branches of learning as well as woodworking, has 
convinced the author that the most effective teaching of 
woodworking can be accomplished only when its content 
is made a subject of as diligent study as is that of the 
other and older branches. Such a study necessitates the 
possession, by the student, of a text-book. 

The selection of a suitable text is made difficult be- 
cause of the fact that tool processes are usually treated 
in connection either with models or exercises. It is hardly 
to be expected that any one set of models or of exercises, 
tho they may be of very great value, will fill the needs of 
varying local school conditions. The production of a text- 
book which shall deal with tool processes in a general 
way without reference to any particular set of models or 
exercises is the author's aim. It is believed that such a 
text will prove suitable wherever the essentials of wood- 
working shall be taught, whether in grammar, high 
school or college, and whatever the system of instruction. 

A few words as to the manner of using the text seem 
advisable. It is not expected that the book will be stud- 
ied chapter by chapter, consecutively, as are the elemen- 
tary texts in mathmatics or science. Rather, it is to be 
studied topically. To illustrate : A class is to make a mod- 
el, project, exercise, or whatever we may choose to call it, 



2 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

which will require a knowledge of certain tools and the 
manner of using them. At a period previous to their in- 
tended use the numbers of the sections of the text relating 
to these tools and their uses, or the page numbers, should 
be given the student. Previous to the period in which 
these tools are tO' be used he should be required to study 
the sections so marked. The recitation upon the assigned 
text should take place at the beginning of the period fol- 
lowing that of the assignment, and may be conducted in 
a manner quite similar to that of academic branches. 

This should prepare the way and make intelligible the 
"demonstration" which may be given in connection with 
the recitation or at its close. 

If as thoro a knowledge of the matter studied is in- 
sisted upon in the recitation as is insisted upon in the 
academic classroom, there need be but little excuse for 
ignorance on the part of the pupil when he begins his 
work or at any subsequent time. 

Acknowledgement is due the Department of Forestry, 
Washington, D. C, for the use of material contained in 
the chapter on Woods and for the prints from which 
many of the half-tones relating to forestry, were pro- 
duced. 



INTRODUCTION. 
Care of Tools and Bench. 

It is important that a beginner should become im- 
pressed with the importance of keeping his tools in the 
best condition. Good results can be obtained only when 
tools are kept sharp and clean, and used only for the pur- 
poses for which they are made. Tools properly shari> 
ened and properly used permit one to work easily as well 
as accurately. When it becomes necessary for the work- 
er to use undue strength because of the dullness of his 
tools, ''troubles" begin to accumulate and the ''pleasure 
of doing" is soon changed to despair. 

Orderliness and carefulness, with knowledge and 
patience are sure to bring good results ; just as a lack of 
them will bring failure. 

The bench top must not be marked with pencil or 
scratched unnecessarily. Chisel boards are to protect the 
top from any accidental cuts and should always be used 
for that purpose. Bench tops that are scraped and shel- 
laced or oiled every other year ought to remain in as good 
condition as when new except for the few accidental 
marks too deep to remove, which the thoughtless boy may 
have inflicted. 

Good workers take pride in keeping their benches in 
o^ood order. Tools that are not in immediate use should 



4 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

be placed in their racks that they may not be injured or 
cause injury to the worker. At the close of the period 
the bright parts of tools that have come in contact with 
perspiring hands should be wiped off with oily waste kept 
for that purpose. All tools should then be put away in 
their proper places and the top of the bench brushed clean. 
The beginner should also understand that, important 
as are the results he may be able to produce in wood, 
more serious results are being produced in himself in the 
habits he is forming. Carefulness, neatness, accuracy, 
ability to economize in time and material, ability to 
''think" and ''to do" because of the thinking, honesty, or- 
derliness — these are some of the more important results 
that are oftentimes overlooked. 



CONTENTS. 
Introduction. 

Care of tools and bench 3 

PART I. 
Tools and Elementary Processes. 

Chapter I. — Laying-out Tools ; Their Uses 9 

I. The rule; 2. The try-square; 3. The framing 
square ; 4. The bevel ; 5. The marking gage ; 6. The 
pencil gage ; 7. Splitting gage ; 8. The mortise gage ; 
9. The Dividers; 10. Pencil and knife. 

Chapter II. — Saws . . ' 20 

II. Saws; 12. The crosscut saw; 13. The rip-saw; 
14. The back-saw; 15. The turning saw; 16. The 
compass saw; 17. Saw filing. 

Chapter III. — Planes 28 

18. Planes; 19. Setting the blade ; 20. Adjustment of 
the iron; 21. The jack-plane; 22. The smooth-plane; 
23. The jointer; 24. The block-plane; 25. The wood- 
en plane; 26. Planing first surface true; 27. Face 
side, face edge; 28. Planing first edge square with 
face side ; 29. Finishing the second edge ; 30. Finish- 
ing the second side ; 31. Planing the first end square ; 
32. Finishing the second end; 33. End planing with 
the shooting board ; 34. Rules for planing to dimen- 
sions ; 35 Planing a chamfer. 



6 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

Chapter IV. — Boring Tools 46 

36. Brace or bitstock ; 37. Center bit ; 38. The auger 
bit; 39. The drill bit; The gimlet bit; 40. Counter- 
sink bit; 41. The screwdriver bit; 42. The brad-awl; 
43. Positions while boring; 44. Thru boring; 45. 
Boring to depth. 

Chapter V. — Chisels and Chiseling 53 

46. Chisels; 47. Horizontal paring across the grain; 
48. Vertical paring; 49. Oblique and curved line par- 
ing; 50 Paring chamfers; 51. The firmer gouge; 52. 
Grinding beveled edge tools; 53. Whetting beveled 
edge tools ; 54. Oilstones ; 55. Sharpening the chis- 
el ; 56. Sharpening plane-irons ; 57. To tell whether 
a tool is sharp or not. 

Chapter VI. — Form Work ; Modeling 65 

58. Making a cylinder; 59. The spokeshave; 60. 
Making curved edges; 61. Modeling. 

Chapter VII. — i. Laying Out Duplicate Parts ; 2. Scrap- 
ing and Sandpapering; 3. Fastening Parts 70 

62. Laying out duplicate parts ; 63. Scraping ; 64. 
Sandpapering ; 65. Hammers ; 66. Nails ; 67. Nail- 
ing; 68. Nailset; 69. Withdrawing nails; 70. The 
screwdriver; 71. Screws; 72. Fastening with screws; 
73. Glue; 74. Clamps; 75. Gluing. 



PART 11. 

Simple Joinery. 
Chapter VIII. — Type Forms 84 

76. Joinery; 77. General directions for joinery; 78. 
Dado; 79. Directions for dado; 80. Cross-lap joint; 



CONTENTS. 7 

81. Directions for cross-lap joint, iirst method; 82. 
Directions for cross-lap joint, second method; 83. 
Glue joint; 84. Directions for glue joint; 85. Dow- 
eling; 86. Directions for doweling; 87. Keyed ten- 
on-and-mortise ; 88. Directions for key; 89. Direc- 
tions for tenon; 90. Directions for mortise; 91. 
Directions for mortise in the tenon; 92. Blind mor- 
tise-and-tenon ; 93. Directions for tenon ; 94. Direc- 
tions for laying out mortise; 95. Directions for cut- 
ting mortise, iirst method; 96. Directions for cut- 
ting mortise, second method; 97. Miter joint; 98. 
Directions for miter joint; 99. Dovetail joint; 100. 
Directions for dovetail joint. 

Chapter IX. — Elementary Cabinet Work 105 

101. Combination plane; 102. Drawer construction; 
103. Directions for rabbeted corner; 104. Direc- 
tions for dovetail corner; 105. Directions for draw- 
er; 106. Paneling; 107. Cutting grooves; 108. 
Haunched mortise-and-tenon ; 109. Rabbeting; 110. 
Fitting a door; 111. Hinging a door; 112. Locks.. 



PART III. 



Wood and Wood Finishing. 



Chapter X. — Wood 116 

113. Structure; 114. Growth; 115. Respiration and 
transpiration; 116. Moisture; 117. Shrinkage; 118. 
Weight; 119. Other properties; 120. Grain. 

Chapter XL — Lumbering and Milling 126 

121. Lumbering; 122. Milling; 123. Quarter saw- 
ing; 124. Waste; 125. Lumber transportation; 126. 
Seasoning; 127. Lumber terms and measurements 



8 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

Chapter XII. — Common Woods 138 

128. Classification. Coniferous woods. 129. Cedar; 
130. Cypress; 131. Pine; 132. Spruce. Broad-leaved 
woods; 133. Ash; 134. Basswood; 135. Birch; 136. 
Butternut; 137. Cherry; 138. Chestnut; 139. Elm; 
140. Gum; 141. Hickory; 142. Maple; 143. Oak; 144. 
Sycamore; 145. Tulip wood; 146. Walnut, 

Chapter XIII. — Wood Finishing 150 

147. Wood finishes; 148. Brushes; 149. General 
directions for using brush; 150. Fillers; 151. Fill- 
ing with paste filler; 152. Stains; 153. Waxing; 
154. Varnishes; 155. Shellac; 156. Shellac finishes; 
157. Oil or copal varnishes; 158. Flowing copal var- 
nish; 159. Typical finishes for coarse-grained woods; 
160. Patching; 161. Painting. 

Appendix I. — Additional Joints 164 

Appendix II. — Wood Finishing Recipes 171 

1. Wax; 2. Water stains; 3. Oil stains; 4. Spirit 
stains. 

Appendix III. — Working Drawings 173 

1. Instruments; 2. Conventions; 3. Projection and 
relation of views; 4. Letters and figures; 5. Con- 
structions ; 6. Order of procedure. 



CHAPTER I. 



Laying-Out Tools — Their Uses. 



1. The Rule. — The foot rule is used as a unit of meas- 
urement in woodwork. The rule ordinarily used is called 
a two-foot rule because of its length. Such rules are 
hinged so as to fold once or twice and are usually made of 




Fig. 1. 

boxwood or maple. The divisions along the outer edges, 

the edges opposite the center hinge, are inches, halves, 

fourths, eighths, and on one 
side sixteenths also. Fig. i. 

The rule should not be laid 
flat on the surface to be meas- 
ured but should be stood on 
edge so that the knife point 
can be made to touch the divi- 
sions on the rule and the wood 

at the same time. Fig. 2. 

Whenever there are several measurements to be made 

along a straight line, the rule should not be raised until 




Fig. 2. 



10 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Ccnleis 




all are made, for with each placing of the rule errors are 
likely to occur. 

The rule is used to find the middle of an edge or sur- 
face by placing it across the 
piece so that the distances from 
the edges of the piece to cor- 
responding inch, or fractional 
marks shall be the same, Fig. 3, 
the middle of the piece being at 
a point midway between the marks selected. 

2. The Try-square. — The try-square may be made 
entirely of iron or steel or it may have a head of w^ood 
called the beam and a blade of steel. The blade is grad- 
uated into inches and fractions of an inch. As all try- 
squares are liable to be 



Fig. 3. 





injured by rough usage, 
care should be taken not 
to let them drop on 
the bench or floor, nor 
should they ever be used 
for prying or pounding. Fig. 4. 

The try-square is used for three purposes : First, to act 
as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines 
across the grain at right angles to an edge or surface; 
second, to test an edge or end to see whether it is square 
to an adjoining surface or edge; third, to test a piece of 
work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness 
thruout its entire length. 

Fig. 5 shows the various positions assumed in lining 
across a piece. The beam should be held firmly against 
either the face side or the face edge. 



LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 



11 



The face side of a piece is the broad surface which is 
first made true. The face edge is the first edge which is 
made square to the face side and straight. These two 
surfaces are usually marked in some way so that they 
may be distinguished from the other surfaces. Their 
use is fully explained in Chapter III. 




Fig. 5. 



If the beam projects beyond the end of the wood, it 
should be reversed. The knife should be inclined for- 
ward and away from the blade of the try-square slightly. 
A light, firm line should be made the first time across 
the piece. 

In testing edges or ends for squareness, the beam 
should be held, as in lining, firmly either against the face 



12 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



side or the face edgfe. 



Fig. 6. 



Care should be taken to 



test the extreme ends of the piece. Also test at a suffi- 
cient number of points to show fully the condition of the 




Fig. 6. 



edge. Sliding the try-square along the edge is not ob- 
jectionable if the blade be held lightly on the surface. 

Under no circumstances should 
the try-square be used to scrape 
the wood. 

In testing a piece to see 
whether it is of the same width 
or thickness thruout its entire 
length, place the blade across the surface to be tested, 
holding the beam lightly against the face side or face 
edge, slide the try-square along the piece with the eye 
fixed upon the graduations at the outer edge. Fig. 7. 




Fig. 7. 



LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 



13 



3. The Framing Square. — Large squares of one 
piece of steel, called framing squares, are used by carpen- 
ters for large and rough work. The long arm is called 




Fig. 8. 



the blade and the short one the tonsfue. 



Fig. 8. 



In ad- 




dition to the divisions into inches and fractions of an 
inch, there is on the blade a board measure table and on 

the tongue a 
brace or rafter 
measure table. 
This square will 
be found con- 
venient when 
"cutting up" 
stock, also for 
testing corners 
of large pieces of 
furniture and for 
setting the bevel 
to various angles. 



TKu m U 3<^r «= •»-<. 




Fig. 9. 



4. The Bevel. — The bevel differs from the try-square 
in having a movable blade. Fig. 9. This blade may be set 
at any desired angle from o to 180 degrees. The manner 
of using the bevel is similar to that of the try-square. 



14 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



When adjusting, the blade should be just loose enough 
to move upon the application of slight pressure. 

There are various ways of setting the bevel to the re- 
quired angle. Should the triangle used in mechanical 
drawing be available, angles of 30 degrees, 45 degrees and 
60 degrees are easily obtained by adjusting the bevel to 
the sides of the required angle. 

To set the bevel to 45 degrees by means of the fram- 
ing square, hold the beam against one of the arms. Fig. 
10, and move the blade so that it shall pass through cor- 
responding points on both blade and tongue. Fig. 1 1 illus- 
trates a method in which 
no other tools are needed. 
A line is squared across ^^s. ^^^'3 3> — - ^ ^ 





Fig. 11. 



Fig. 10. 

a board having a straight 
edge. Equal distances are 
measured from the point 
at which the line cuts the 
edge, the blade then being 
made to pass through 
these points while the beam is held tightly against the edge. 
For angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees, square a knife 
line at right angles to an edge. Fig. 12. Measure from 
the edge, along this line, or from this line along the edge 
any given distance. Take twice this distance upon the 
blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right triangle is 
formed in which the length of the longest side shall be 
twice that of the shortest. 



LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 



15 




5. The Marking Gage.— The gage is used for laying 
out lines along the grain of the wood. It consists of a 
beam, Fig. 13, head, thumb screw, and marking point 
or spur. The spur should be sharpened to a knife point 

with a file so that it may 
make a fine smooth line. 
It should project far 
enough below the beam so 
that the beam may be roll- 
ed forward in such a way 
as to bring the spur into 
the board at a slight angle, 
when ] roperly marking. 
It should extend not less 
than an eighth of an inch 
and in most cases three- 
sixteenths of an inch. 
The graduations on the beam are seldom reliable. It 
is safer to set the gage wath the rule by measuring the 
distance from the spur to the gage block. This is done 




Fig. 12. 




Fig. 13. 




by holding the gage bottom side up in the left hand. 
With the right place the end of the rule against the head. 
Fig. 13. After the screw has been tightened, apply the 
rule again to make sure of the correctness of the setting. 



16 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



To gage the line, take the tool in the right hand, three 
fingers grasping the beam, first encircling the head for 
narrow work, and the thumb back, or nearly back, of the 
spur. Fig. 14. The head should be kept against one or 

the other of the face sides. Be- 
gin at the end of the piece 
which is towards you, hold the 
block firmly against the piece, 
roll the beam forward until 
the spur barely touches the 





Fig. 14. 



Fig. 15. 



Fig. 



15 



illus- 



surface and make a very light line, 
trates the manner of raising the spur from the wood by 
raisinof the wrist durinjj the backward stroke. It will be 
found convenient to hold the piece against the bench stop 
This steadies the piece and permits the worker to see how 
deep the spur is cutting and whether the head is against 
the face properly. Avoid deep lines. They are inaccur- 
ate even if straight and always cause trouble in the mak- 
ing unless the grain of the wood is perfectly straight. 

6. The Pencil Gage. — There are occasions when a 
pencil-gage marks with sufficient accuracy and is more 
suitable because its point does not cut the wood, such as 
in gaging for a bevel. A hole bored thru the beam near 
one end, just large enough to receive a pencil snugly, will 
suffice. Fig. 16. 

Fig. 17 illustrates a method frequently used by carpen- 
ters. 



The fingers act as a gage head. 



LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 



17 



A. slitting gage is one in which 



7. Slitting Gage. 

the spur is sharp and strong, and will cut thru soft 
lumber as thick as one-quarter of an inch. The boards 
are cut from each side and considerable pressure is re- 



^^litTinq G^-g* 




Fig. 16. 




AnMe 



NorTise Gd-qe- 








Fig. 17. 




Fig. 18. 



quired. Sometimes a handle like that of the plane is 
fastened to the beam near the knife or spur. Fig. i8. 

8. The Mortise Gauge.— Fig. i8 also shows a mortise 
gage used in advanced work. It has twu spurs, one of 
them adjusted by means of the screw at the end of the 
beam at any desired distance from the stationary one, so 
that the two sides of a mortise or tenon can be marked 
at once. 

9. The Dividers. — Dividers, Fig. 19, are used (i) in 
describing circles, (2) in dividing a given space into a 
given number of parts, and (3) in marking one member 
which is to be fitted to another irregular member. Fig. 



18 



ESSEXTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Tnvmbnut 



20 shows the manner of setting the dividers. The thumb- 
screw should be released so that the legs may be moved 

without much effort. When 
the approximate setting has 
been secured, use the thumb- 
nut for adjusting to more 
accurate measurement. In 
describing circles, the divid- 
ers should be held as in Fig. 
21 and swung to the right 
or left as is convenient. They 
should be leaned forward 
slightly and an effort made 





Fig. 20. 



Fig. 21. 



to secure a sharp, light line. For most work the two 
legs may be sharpened to points. Sometimes one is 
sharpened like a knife point. 

10. Pencil and Knife.— Pencil lines may be used 
in getting out stock from rough material and in laying 
out work on rough surfaces where a knife line would not 
be visible. Pencil lines should be carefully made, how- 
ever. The pencil may be used also in marking bevels. 



LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 



19 



curves and in other places where the knife or gage mark 
would be injurious. Otherwise, the knife and gage should 
be used. Pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by 
means of the eraser. 

In laying out rough 
stock, if the first edge is 
sufficiently straight, it is 





thumb- 
width. 



Fig. 23. 



/ 

Fig. 22. 

usual to 
gage for 
This is done by 
holding the pencil 
at the end of the 
rule and using the 
thumb of the left hand as the gage head, drawing the 
whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-beam. 

Fig. 22. 

A straight-edge, a board with a straight edge, is often 
used in marking out. Mark off the length of the piece 
of wood required. Mark off the breadth at the end of 
tjhe board, also mark it near what is to be the other 
end of the piece. Place the straight-edge on these two 
marks and draw the line. Fig. 23. The try-square 
should be used to mark across the grain. 



CHAPTER 11. 



Saws. 

11. Saws. — Saws which are used in cutting across the 
grain are called crosscut ; those which are used in cutting 
parallel to the grain are called ripsaws. Fig. 24. Upon 
the blade of a saw, near the handle, will be found a num- 




/Yee/ 



ThinTT 



ber. This represents the number of points to the inch. 
Points should not be confused with teeth, for there is al- 
ways one more point per inch than there are teeth. 

To prevent the sides of a cut or kerf from binding the 
saw, the teeth are bent alternately from side to side, that 
the opening may be wider than the blade is thick. The 
saw teeth are then said to have ''set." To do good work, 
a saw should have no more set than is necessary to allow 
a free movement. Fig. 25. Damp, spongy lumber will 
require considerable set, while well seasoned lumber ne- 
cessitates but little. 

The rake, or ])itch of the teeth of a saw is the degree 



SAWS. 



21 




E^^ 



(^£^ 



'3S 



e.r"«>~t^cd ) 



^^fcl^^i^Z 



HL; 



"x-^ 



15^ 



of slant which the cutting edges possess with reference 
to an imaginary hne passing thru the points of the 
teeth. Fig. 25. The amount of pitch given will depend 

upon the use to which the 
saw is to be put, whether 
for ripping or cross cut- 
ting, and somewhat upon 
the hardness or softness 
of the wood to be cut. 
Figf. 26 shows the saw in 
^2 proper position. It should 
be held in the right hand 
with the left hand grasp- 
ing the board, the thumb 
of the left hand acting as 
a guide in the beginning. 
The thumb should be held 
firmly on the board and 

the blade of the saw should be pressed lightly against it. 

The cutting edge of the saw 

should be held at an angle of 

about forty-five degrees to the 

board and should be started on 

a backward stroke. The first 

few strokes should be short ones, 

increasing gradually in length. 
If the tool is sharp, but little 

pressure will ever be recpiired 

and, in starting, the tool must be 

held up so that its weight shall 

come upon the wood gradually. 





Fig. 26. 
Saws can be guided 




21 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

better if the index finger of the right hand is allowed to 
extend along the side of the handle. Test occasionally, 
sighting down the saw blade to see that the sides of the 
saw are at right angles to the surface of the board. A 
try-square may be used by the beginner, as shown in 
Fig. 26. 

If the saw does not follow the direction of the line, 
the blade should be slightly twisted, as the sawing pro- 
ceeds, in the direction it ought to take. This must be 
carefully done so as not to cause the blade to bind and 

kink. In sawins; a 
'board which has been 
fastened in the vise, 
the most convenient 
position is obtained by 
sawing at right angles 
to the surface. Un- 
less the saw has con- 
siderable set, difficulty 
will be experienced in changing the direction of the cut- 
ting should this be necessary. This may be overcome by 
lowering the handle so that the cutting edge shall make 
the same angle with the board as when the board rests 
on trestles. 

When making a long cut, should the kerf bind, a wedge 
may be inserted as shown in Fig. 26. 

All saws will w^ork easier and will be found less likely 
to rust if their sides are rubbed occasionally with an oily 
rag or a piece of tallow. 

12. The Crosscut Saw.— Fig. 25 shows the teeth of 
a crosscut saw. This saw is filed so that the cutting 




SAWS. 



23 




Ai 



-^ 



15^ 



Fig. 28. 



edges are on the sides of the teeth. Every tooth is sharp- 
ened to a point, one on the right side, the next on the left, 
giving two parallel lines of sharp points with a V-shaped 
groove between. 

The pitch given the teeth of a crosscut saw will vary 
with the hardness or softness of the wood which is to be 
cut. For all-around use the amount of slant is about 
one-third of the whole tooth. Fig. 2y. 

13. The Rip-saw.— The teeth of the rip-saw are chisel 

shaped. Fig. 28, and are 

/ made by filing straight 
across the blade. The 
front or cutting edges are 
filed so that they are 
squar ^ or at right angles 

to an imaginary line passing through the points of the 

teeth. 

14. The Back-saw. — The '>ack-saw, or tenon-saw as 
it is often called, has a 
thin blade strengthened 
by a heavy steel back 
piece. It is used upon 
work requiring delicate, 
accurate cutting, Fig. 
29. Fig. 30 shows the shape of the teeth, which differ 

slightly from those of the cross-cut. 
These teeth are suitable for both 
cross-cutting and fine ripping. But 
little set is given the teeth of the 
hack-saw. 




Fig. 29. 




Fig. 30. 



In using this saw, Fig. 31, hold the work firmly against 



24 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




the stop of the benchhook with the left hand, guiding the 
saw with the forefinger or thumb placed against the blade 

just above the teeth. Begin on 
the backward stroke, holding the 
handle end of the saw highest. 
Begin at the farthest corner, us- 
ing short, easy strokes. Gradu- 
ally lower the handle to a hori- 
zontal position, meanwhile in- 
creasin'^ the number of teeth 
used, but continuing the slow, regular strokes. 

In accurate cutting, 
Fig. 32, where no par- 
ing or block-planing is 
to be done, the saw 
teeth should cut just by 
the line, with the kerf 
in the waste, but with 
no wood between the 
line and the kerf. To allow for paring or block-planing, 
saw about one-sixteeiith of an inch in the waste. Fig. 33. 
When ripping, place the piece in the vise and begin 
sawing as indicated in Fig. 34. 
Place the saw so that just the whole 
of its thickness is in what is to be- 
come waste wood. Begin sawing 
as was done in crosscutting. Grad- 
ually lower the handle, while saw- 
ing, until most is being cut from 
the side nearest you. Fig 35. Reverse the wood several 
times, working down one side then the other until the 





Fig. 2)i. 




Fig. 34. 



SAWS. 



25 



cross lines are reached. Fig. 36 illustrates the result of 
good and bad sawing. . 





(coo 3 s 




Fig. 35. 



Fig. 36. 



15. The Turning-saw. — The turning or bow-saw is 
used for cutting along curved lines. Fig. 37 illustrates 
the manner of holding this saw. The sides of the blade 
must be held at right angles to the surface of the wood. 
Either or both handles may be turned, thus turning the 
blade with reference to the frame. Avoid turning the 




Fig. 37. 



blade, however, as much as possible and see that the blade 
is not twisted by turning one handle more than the other. 
This saw may be used for cutting enclosed curves by 
boring a hole, releasing one end of the blade and inserting 
it thru this hole then replacing it in the saw frame. 



26 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




Fig. 38. 



As the cut of the turning saw is not very smooth, it is 
advisable to leave about one-sixteenth of an inch between 
the kerf and the line, to be removed later with the spoke- 
shave. 

16. The Compass Saw. — The compass saw, Fig. 38, 

is better suited for inside 
curve sawing. Its use re- 
quires a steady hand, else 
the thin blade will buckle 
and break. 

17. Saw Filing. — Learning to sharpen a saw is a diffi- 
cult thing — so difficult that it is not considered within 
the province of a book on elementary woodworking to 
treat of it. One who uses saws, ought, however, to know 
the steps which are taken to put a saw in order. 

The teeth are first set. Fig. 39 shows a common form 
of saw-set in 



position. Be- 
ginning at one 
end of the saw, 

every other ^f>i^7^^' 

tooth is bent ^^^- ^^■ 

outward by means of this instrument. The saw is then 
reversed and the remaining teeth are similarly treated. 

As these saw-sets are adjustable, the teeth may be bent 
much or little as the work to be done demands. 

Second, the teeth are jointed. A flat file is run length- 
wise over them the full length of the saw so that none of 
the teeth may project more than others. Fig. 40 shows 
a flat file in position for jointing. This block keeps the 
surface of the file at right angles to the blade of the saw. 




SAWS. 



27 



Third, the saws are filed, a three-cornered file being 
used for this purpose. The kind of saw determines the 




Fig. 40. 




, Fig. 41. 



angle or angles at which the file is held with reference to 
the saw blade. Fig. 41 illustrates the position when filing 
the crosscut and Fig. 42 the rip-saw. 





Fig. 43. 



Fourth, the teeth are side jointed by laying the saw 
flat upon the bench and rubbing an oil-stone over each 
side lightly, once. Fig. 43. This is to even the sides of 
the teeth that the kerf may be smoothly cut. 



CHAPTER III. 



Planes. 

18. Planes. — A standard plane of the present time is 
shown in Fig. 44. The bottom of this plane is- of iron. 
Fig. 45 shows a plane with the same adjustments in which 

the bottom is of wood. 
Planes are made in dif- 
ferent sizes. As certain 
lengths are more suit- 
able for certain kinds 
of work they have been 
given distinguishing names such as jack-plane, smooth- 
plane, fore-plane, jointer. Fig, 44 shows the jack-plane. 





Fig. 45. 

The two irons of the plane, the plane-iron or plane-bit, 
and the cap-iron are fastened together by means of a 
stout screw. Fig. 46. 

This cap-iron serves a double purpose. First : It stiff- 
ens the plane iron ; second, it serves to bend and break 
the shaving and thereby prevent a splitting action in front 



PLANES. 



29 



of the cutting edge. This action would surely occur were 
the grain in the least unfavorable and the cap-iron not 
used. Fig. 47. 

19. Setting the Blade. — The cap-iron should extend 
to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the cutting edge of 






I P»6>ae-Iroa. 9 )_A.t«r<:« I AdJusTrpenT. 

£C6.|D-Iroa loFroQ 5crewr. 

»3Pl6»ne-Iroo ^crew. il Handle. 

AC&>\>. \% Kr7ob. 

5 C<s )D-5crew. ) 5 KapJ I e.'3o It ^. H< 'T.* 

6 Fro3. )^ IVrvob'Boir^ MuK" 
T^'Y AdiustnoenlT l5"HaDdle ^crew. 

Fig. 46. 



Fig. 47. 

the plane-iron in 
the smooth-plane 
and three thirty- 
seconds in the 
jack-plane. Fig. 



48. The screw 
which holds the plane-iron and cap-iron together must be 
fastened with a screwdriver — many 
carpenters use the plane-iron for this 
purpose — tightly as possible, otherwise 
a few strokes of the plane and the 
plane-iron will have been forced up so 
that the cutting edge will not touch the 
wood. The reason for this action will 
be understood when it is seen that the 
lever of the brass adjusting nut does 
not act directly on the cap-iron but only on the plane-iron 




Fig. 48. 



30 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

as it is carried along by being fastened with this screw 
to the cap-iron. 

The cap-iron and plane-iron are fastened in the throat 
of the plane by a cap on one end of which is a little lever 
or cam. 

Should this cam fail to hold the irons firmly, the screw 
which holds the cap to the frog should be turned with the 
screwdriver. It should be remembered, however, that this 
screw, once set, seldom needs adjusting. 

Beginners frequently, in ignorance, place the plane-iron 
and cap-iron together so that the side of the plane-iron 
having the bevel is next the cap-iron. This results in a 
loose acting cam and the}^ should look to see that the 
irons are properly set before changing the screw. 

Should it be impossible to force the cam into place 
without great pressure, first look to see whether the blade 
rests flat upon the frog before releasing the screw. Fre- 
quently the little lever which should enter the small open- 
ing in the cap-iron will be found to have entered the 
opening in the plane-iron only. 

20. Adjustment of the Iron.— There are two adjust- 
ments for the blade of the modern plane. The first con- 
sists in turning the thumb-screw or adjusting nut, Fig. 
46, that the plane iron may cut a thicker or a thinner 
shaving. The direction in which it should be turned to 
give the desired result must be learned by experiment, 
for in some planes it is the reverse of what it is in others. 

A little observation of the action of the screw upon the 
lever which connects it to the plane iron will show that 
there is often quite a little lost motion so that it becomes 
necessary to turn the screw a little before the iron is raised 



PLANES. 



31 



■—Ji 



or lowered any. One soon learns by the sense of feeling 
when the lost motion has been taken up. 

The second adjustment is by means of the lever, 9, Fig. 
46. Moving this lever to the right or the left serves to 
straighten the plane-iron, so that the cutting edge shall 
extend evenly through the mouth and not take a shaving 
thicker at one side of the iron than at the other. 

In adjusting a plane-iron, turn the plane upside down 
with the toe towards you, hold it toward the light and 

sight along the bottom, Fig. 49. 
If the plane-iron projects, ob- 
serve whether it projects evenly 
or not. Usually one side will be 
found to project more than the 
other. Move the adjusting lev- 
er until it shall project uniform- 
ly. The cutting edge should 
project about the thickness of a 
piece of drawing paper for 
average work. 
21. The Jack-Plane.— The jack-plane is about thirteen 
inches long. Where a full equipment of planes is at hand, 
the plane-iron of the jack-plane is 
ground slightly rounding as is 
shown in Fig. 50 A. The purpose of 
this plane is to remove rough or 
large quantities of w^ood and this 
shape of blade is best suited for 
that purpose. Of course the sur- 
face of the wood is left in hollows and ridges, and it is 
necessary to use another plane with a plane-iron ground 




Fig. 49. 



fVi 



nsi 



E. 



Fig. 50. 



22 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Straight and set shallower in order to smooth the surface. 
In manual-training schools where the jack-plane is 
made to serve the purpose of smooth-plane also, the plane- 
iron is sharpened straight across and the corners slightly 
rounded, B, Fig. 50. 

22. The Smooth-Plane.— The smooth-plane is short- 
er than the jack-plane. Fig. 51. It is used, as its name 

implies, for smoothing sur- 
faces. As the straightening 
is supposed to have been pre- 
viously done, the shorter 
length is no disadvantage. 
For fine work the cap-iron 
of thi;5 plane may be set as 
close as one thirty-second of an inch to the cutting edge 
of the plane-iron. The plane-iron should be set corres- 
pondingly shallow. 

23. The Jointer. — This plane is used for straighten- 




FiG. 51. 




ing long and uneven stock. It is most commonly used 
for preparing the parts for glue joints. Fig. 52. 

Its advantage lies in its length, often two feet or more, 
which prevents the blade from cutting in the hollow 




PLANES. 33 

places until all of the high places have been leveled. A 
short plane would simply follow the irrgularities, smooth- 
ing but not straightening. The plane-iron of the jointer 
should be ground straight across. 

Fore-planes are short jointers, next in size to the jack- 
planes, and are used for such work as straightening the 
edges of doors, windows, etc., when fitting them. 

24. The Block-Plane. — The block-plane is about six 
inches long. Fig. 53. It is made especially for cutting 

across the end of the wood. In 
addition to the adjusting nut, 
which is in a different position but 
serves the same purpose as in the 

^ ,^ jack-plane, and the lateral adjust- 

FiG. 53. . . . . 

ing lever, there is a lever for ad- 
justing the size of the opening at the mouth of this plane. 
The block-plane differs from the planes just described 
in that it has no cap-iron, none being needed in end-plan- 
ing. The plane iron is put in place with the bevel side up 
instead of down as in the other planes. 

The block-plane is not a necessity where a vise can be 
used for holding the piece to be planed. A smooth-plane 
or jack-plane may, if the plane-iron be set very shallow, 
do the work just as well. The block-plane is used most- 
ly by carpenters in fitting together pieces which cannot be 
taken to the vise. Here the smallness of the plane and 
the fact that but one hand is needed to operate it are of 
very great advantage. 

25. The Wooden Plane.— The old-fashioned wood- 
en planes are still preferred by some woodworkers. The 
iron bodied planes have displaced them because of the 



34 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



ease with which they can be adjusted rather than because 
they produce any better results. Wooden planes are sub- 
ject to warpage and as the bottoms become uneven 

thru wear, it is necessary to straight- 
en and level them occasionally. The 
plane-iron and cap-iron of the wood- 
en plane are fastened in the throat 
of the plane by means of a wooden 
wedge. This wedge is driven in 
place with the hammer. Fig. 54 
shows the manner of holding the 
plane while setting the irons and 
wedge. If the plane-iron does not 
project enough, the iron is lightly 
tapped as indicated. If too much projects, the stock is 
tapped as in Fig. 55. This figure also illustrates the man- 
ner of removing the wedge, two or three blows being 
sufficient to release it so that it can be with- 
drawn with the hand. In setting the plane- 
iron, should either corner project more 




Fig. 54. 





Fig. 56. Fig. 55. 

than the other, tap the side of the iron. 

Fig. 56 shows the manner of holding the smooth plane 
in releasing the wedge, as well as when the cutting edge 
projects too much. 



PLANES. 



35 



26. Planing First Surface True. — A true surface is 
one which is straight as to its length and width and 
which has its surface at the four corners in the same plane. 
Select for this first surface, which we shall call the face 
side, the better of the two broad surfaces. Knots, sap, 
wind, shakes, etc., should there be any, must be taken into 




Fig. 57. 




account when passing judgment. Often the two sides are 
so nearly alike that there is little reason for choice. 

Where several parts are to be fitted together, the faces 
are turned in ; in this case, the best surfaces should not be 
selected for faces. Chapter VII, section 75. 

Before beginning to plane hold the piece toward the 
light, close one eye and sight as in Fig. 57. If the sur- 
face is not warped or in wind, the back 
arris ab will appear directly behind the 
front arris cd. Also sight the arrises for 
straightness, Fig. 58, being careful to hold 
so as to get the full benefit of the light. 
Again, test from arris to arris, Fig. 59. 
The try-square may be used either side up, but the beam 
must not be held against either edge. It is not for square- 
ness but for straightness that this test is made. 

Notice the direction of the grain and place the piece so 




Fig. 59. 




36 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

as not to plane against it. In Fig. 60 plane from A to- 
ward B or the surface will be roughened instead of smooth- 
ed. When the stock is rough, 
the direction of the grain cannot 
be told readily. A few strokes 
of the olane will give the de- 
sired information. As most stock is to be planed to size, 
it is well to test with the rule before beginning to plane, 
so as to know just how much margin has been allowed 
If you find you cannot true this first surface without get- 
ting the piece within one-sixteenth of an inch of the 
thickness required, ask your instructor to show you 
where the trouble lies. 

These tests ought to give the worker a pretty fair idea 
of what and how much he dare plane, so that when he 
begins he may work intelligently. As few shavings as 
possible, and those thin ones, with the proper result at- 
tained, show forethought and care. Nowhere can good, 
common sense be used to better advantage than in learn- 
ing to plane. 

When planes are not in use they should be laid on their 
sides, or otherwise placed so that the cutting edge shall 
not touch anything. 

For roughing ofT and straightening broad surfaces, the 
jack-plane should be used, and this followed .by the 
smooth-plane. 

When using the plane, stand with the right side to the 
bench; avoid a stooping position. Fig. 61. The plane 
should rest flat upon the wood from start to finish. Press 
heavily upon the knob in starting and upon the handle in 
finishing the stroke. Unless care is taken to hold the 



PLANES. 



37 



plane level in starting and stopping, the result will be as 
indicated in Fig. 62 A. 

Take as long a shaving as the nature of the work will 
permit. In planing long boards or where it is desired 





B 



Fig. 61. 



Fig. 62. 



to lower one particular place only, it becomes necessary 
to stop the stroke before the end of the board is reached. 
That no mark shall show at the place where the plane- 
iron is lifted, it is necessary to feather the shaving. This 
is done by holding the toe of the plane upon the board 
and raising the heel as the stroke proceeds, beginning 
just before the stopping point is reached. If the cut is 
to commence other than at the end of the piece, lower 
the heel after having started the forward stroke with the 
toe upon the board. 

It is customary to raise the heel of the plane slightly 
on the backward stroke that the edge may not be dulled. 

When the surface has been planed so that it fulfills the 
tests by sighting described above, an additional test may 



38 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



be given it. Should the board be of any considerable 
width — three or more inches — the following test will 
prove sufficient: Place a straight-edge lengthwise, then 
crosswise the surface planed and along each of its two 




Fig. 63'. 

diagonals. If no light can be seen between the piece and 
the straight-edge in any of these four tests, the surface 
may be considered level or true. Fig. 63. 

A second test, one which will answer for narrow as well 
as broad surfaces, differs from the above only in the man- 
ner of determining whether the surface is in wind or not. 
Two sticks, called winding sticks, are prepared by plan- 
ing their two opposite edges 
straight and parallel to each 
other. These sticks are placed 
across the surface to be test- 
ed, close to the ends, and a 
sight taken over their top 
edges. If the surface is in 
wind the edges cannot be made to sight so that one edge 
will appear directly back of the other, Fig. 64; one end 
of the back stick will appear high, at the same time the 




Fig. 64. 



PLANES. 



39 



Other one will appear low with reference to the edge of 
the fore stick. The back corner is high only as compared 
with the fore corner. The wind may be taken out of the 
surface just as well by planing the fore corner which is 
diagonally opposite. Usually, equal amounts should be 
planed from the surface at each of these corners. If, 
however, the board is thicker at one corner than the other, 
it is best to take the whole amount at the thicker corner. 

27. Face Side, Face Edge.— The first surface and the 
first edge planed serve a special purpose and are given 
special names. The first surface is called the face side, 
and the first edge, the face edge ; both may be referred to 
as the faces. These faces are sometimes known by other 
names such as working face 
and joint edge, marked face 
and marked edge, etc., but their 
meaning is the same. 

That these faces may be 
known, they are marked with ^ig. 65. 

pencil with what are called face 

marks. There are various ways of making face marks. 
Unless otherwise instructed, the marks may be made as 
in Fig. 65 ; for the face side, a light slanting line about 
one inch long extending to the edge which is to become 
the face edge ; for the face edge, two light lines across the 
edge. The marks on both face side and face edge should 
be placed about the middle of the piece and close together. 

These two surfaces are the only ones marked. From 
one or the other of these, measurements and tests are 
made. In squaring up stock, for illustration (which 
means to reduce a piece of rough lumber to definite 




40 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

length, width and thickness so that it shall have smooth, 
flat sides at right angles to each other) the gage block is 
held against one or the other of these faces only, and the 
beam of the try-square when testing for squareness is 
placed against one or the other of these faces only. 

28. Planing First Edge Square with Face Side.— 
Make a preliminary test with the eye before beginning to 
plane. Sight the arrises of the edge to see where it needs 
straightening. Examine the end to see which arris is 
high. Also look to see which way the grain runs. Avoid 
imperfections in the wood as far as possible in choosing 
this edge. 

It is the part of wisdom to examine the plane-iron to 
see that the surface planing has not caused the cutting 
edge to project unevenly. A plane, set out of true, is 
likely to cause hours of extra work ; it defeats every effort 
that may be made to hold the plane properly. 

Strive to get shavings the full length of the piece, es- 
pecially on the last few strokes. 

The smooth-plane is little if ever used for edge planing 
on account of its short length. In using the jack-plane? 
in which the edge is slightly rounded, thus making a shav- 
ing thicker in the middle than at the edges, avoid tilting 
the plane to make it cut on one side rather than the other. 
Move the whole plane over to the high side so that the 
middle of the cutting edge shall be directly over the high 
place. Keep the sides of the plane parallel with the edge 
so as to get the full benefit of the length of the plane. 

The two tests which this first edge must fulfill are: 
First, that it shall be straight; second, that it shall be 
square with the face side. Fig. 6, Chapter I, shows the 



PLANES. 41 

method of testing for squareness. As in planing the face 
side, try to accomplish the desired result with as few 
shavings as possible. 

The caution about planing the first surface, where a 
definite size is to be attained, applies equally to planing 
the first edge. 

When the edge has been properly trued, put on the face 
marks suitable for the face edge. 

29. Finishing the Second Edge. — A line gaged from 
the face edge indicates the proper stopping place in plan- 
ing the second edge. This line, if lightly made, should be 
half planed off. 

As the line is parallel with the face edge, no straight 
edge test is necessary. The try-square test for square- 
ness, the beam being held against the face side, must be 
frequently applied when approaching the gage line. 

Where the amount of waste stock to be planed is about 
an eighth of an inch, the plane-iron may be set a little 
deeper than average. When near the line, however, it 
must be set quite shallow. If the waste stock measures 
more than three sixteenths of an inch, the rip-saw should 
be used, sawing parallel to the gage line and about one- 
eighth of an inch away from it. 

30. Finishing the Second Side.— Lines gaged from 
the face side on the two edges show the amount to be 
planed. 

The test for this side is made by placing the straight- 
edge across the piece from arris to arris as the planing 
proceeds, to see that the middle shall be neither high nor 
low when the gage lines have been reached. No other 
test is necessary; a little thought will show the reason. 



42 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Never attempt to work without lines. If by mistake 
you plane out your line, take the piece to your instructor 
at once, unless you have been otherwise directed, that he 
may tell you what to do. 

31. Planing the First End Square. — See that the cut- 
ting edge is very sharp and that the plane-iron is set per- 
fectly true and very shallow. Examine one of the ends 
of the piece by placing the beam of the try-square against 
the face side then against face edge to locate the high 
places. Fig. 6. 

In free end planing, the cutting edge must not be allow- 
ed to reach the farther corner or the corner will be broken 




Stop 



I I \ 



Fig. 66. 



\ \ 



off. Plane only part way across the end, stopping the cut- 
ting edge half an inch or more from the far edge. Fig. 
66. After a few strokes in this direction, reverse the posi- 
tion and plane in the opposite direction, stopping the cut- 
ting edge half an inch or more of the first edge. 

Keep testing the end as the planing proceeds that you 
may know what you are doing. Remove no more material 
than is necessary to square the end, and lay on the rule 
occasionally that you may not endanger the correct length 
in your efforts to square this end. 

32. Finishing the Second End. — Knife lines squared 
entirely around the piece, at a given distance from the end 
first squared, limit the amount of the planing that can be 



PLANES. 



43 




Fig. 67. 



done on this end. If the waste stock is over one-eighth of 
an inch the saw should be used to remove all but a thirty- 
second of an inch before beginning to plane. Watch the 
lines. If you are uncertain as to their accuracy, test this 
end as you did the first one. 

33. End Planing with the Shooting Board. — Fig. 67 

illustrates a way in which the 
ends of narrow pieces may be 
easily squared. The plane is 
pressed to the shooting board 
with the right hand. The left 
hand holds the piece against 
the stop and to the plane. 

The face edge of the piece 
should be held against the 
stop; the wood must not be 
allowed to project beyond the stop. 
If it does, the corners, being unsup- 
ported, will be broken away as in 
free planing when the cutting edge 
is accidentally shoved entirely across 
the piece. 

The bench hook makes an admir- 
able shooting board. Fig. 68. 

34. Rules for Planing to Dimensions. 

A True and smooth a broad surface; put on a face 
mark. This becomes the face side. 

2. Joint (straighten and square) one edge from the 
face side ; put on a face mark. This becomes the face edge. 

3. Gage to required width from the face edge, and 
joint to the gage line. 




Fig. 68. 



44 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



4. Gage to required thickness on both edges from the 
face side ; plane to the gage lines. 

5. Square one end from the face side and face edge. 

6. Lay off with knife and square the required length 
from the squared end ; saw to the knife line. 

35. Planing a Chamfer.— Fig. 69 illustrates a good 
way to lay out a chamfer. A notch in the back end of the 

gage-stick holds the pencil in 
position. Holding pencil in 
this way draw lines on face 




Fig. 69. 



Fig. 70. 



and edge indicating width of the chamfer. Fig. 70 illus- 
trates the manner of block planing a chamfer, the piece 

being held on the bench- 
hook. Where the piece 
can be placed in the vise, 
Fig. 71 illustrates the 
method of planing a 
chamfer with one of the 
larger planes. First, 
plane the chamfers which 
are parallel to the grain ; 
then the ends. If the plane-iron is sharp and set shallow, 




Fig. 71. 



PLANES. 



45 



it can be run entirely across without danger of splitting 
the corners. 




Fig. 72. 



Hold the plane parallel to the edge in planing with the 
grain. Swing it to an angle of about forty-five degrees 
in end chamfering, but move it parallel with the edge, and 
not with the length of the plane. 

The eye will detect inaccuracies in planing. If furthur 
test is desired, Fig. 72 illustrates one. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Boring Tools — Boring. 



36. Brace or Bitstock. — Fig. 73 illustrates a common 
form of brace. This tool is used for holding the various 

kinds of bits which are used in 
boring, reaming, etc. 

The ratchet brace consists 
of essentially the same parts 
but in addition has an attach- 
ment which permits of the 
crank's acting in one direction 
or the other only. It is a neces- 
sity where the crank 
cannot make an entire 
revolution, and is very 
convenient for boring 




in hard wood, or for turning- 
large screws. 

To insert a bit. hold the brace 
firmly with the left hand, re- 
volve the crank until the jaws 
are opened far enough to allow the bit tang to pass en- 
tirely within so that the ends of the jaws shall grip the 
round part — the shank of the bit. Still firmly holding 




BORING TOOLS. A7 

the brace, revolve the crank in the opposite direction until 
the bit is firmly held. Fig. 74. 

37. Center Bit. —The old fashioned center bit Fig. 75, 
is still used by carpenters for certain kinds of work. It 




Fig. 75. 

has, for the most part, given way to the more modern 
auger bit. 

38. The Auger Bit. — The auger bit, Fig. y6, is used for 
all ordinary boring in wood. The action of an auger bit 
is readily understood by referring to Fig. 76. The spur 




draws the bit into the wood. The tw^o nibs cut the fibers, 
after which the lips remove the waste, later to be passed 
along the twist to the surface. 

Auger bits are usually supplied in sets of thirteen, in 
sizes varying from one-fourth of an inch to one inch, by 
sixteenths. 

The size of hole that an auger bit will bore can be told 
by looking at the number on the tang or shank. If a 
single number, it is the numerator of a fraction whose de- 
nominator is sixteen, the fraction referring to the diam- 
eter of the hole which the bit will bore. 



48 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

Exercise care in laying down a bit ; it is easily dulled. 
Do not use a good auger bit where there is any danger of 
its striking nails or other metal. 

x\uger bits are easily sharpened, a small file being used, 
but they are more easily spoiled by improper filing, and 
no student should attempt to sharpen one without having 
personal direction from his instructor. 

39. The Drill Bit; The Gimlet Bit. —The drill bit, 
Fig. yy, is quite hard and may be used for boring in 
metal as well as wood. It is easily broken and especial 



Fig. 77. Fjg. 78. 

care must be taken to hold the brace firmly. Do not try 
to change the direction of the boring by inclining the 
brace after the bit has started into the wood. 

In boring hard wood or metal, make a ''seat" for the 
point with an awl or, in metal with a center punch. Other- 
wise it is difficult to start the bit in the exact place. 

The gimlet bit, Fig. 78, is used mainly for boring holes 
for screws. 

40. Countersink Bit. — Fig. 79 is an illustration of a 
rosehead countersink. This tool is used for enlarging 



Fig. 79. 

screw holes made with the gimlet so that the heads of the 
screws may sink into the wood even with or below the 
surface. 



BORING TOOLS. 



49 



41. The Screw-driver Bit. — The screwdriver bit, Fig. 
80, is not a boring tool, but as it is used in connection 
with the brace it is inserted here. It will be found con- 



FiG. 80. 
venient where large screws are to be inserted. Where a 
large number of screws are to be inserted it will permit 
of very rapid work. 

In using the screwdriver bit, especially in driving 
screws into hard wood, the bit will tend to jump out of 
the groove in the head of the screw. To avoid its jump- 
ing entirely out and marring the wood, take but half a 
revolution at a time, then move the brace backward 
slightly before proceeding again. This allows the bit 
which has partly worked its way out of the groove to drop 
back again. 

The manner in which a screwdriver bit is sharpened 
has much to do with its working properly. It should be 
sharpened like the screwdrivjr. 

42. The Brad-awl. — The brad-awl 
is used for boring very small holes. 
Unlike most boring tools it does not 
remove the material from the opening- 
it makes. 

The cutting edge of the brad awl 
should be placed across the grain in 
starting, and the tool turned half way 
around and back again, repeating until 
the proper depth has been bored. It is withdrawn with 
similar turnings. Fig. 81. 




Fig. 81. 



50 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Patent spiral screwdrivers and automatic drills have 
come into quite common use in recent years. They are 
used mainly upon light work ; their advantage being the 
rapidity with which they do their work. 

43. Positions while Boring. — Fig. 82 illustrates the 
position to be taken in horizontal boring. The head of the 
brace is held steady by bracing the body against the hand 
which holds it. 

To tell whether a bit is boring a hole in the direction 
which is wanted, it is necessary to sight the bit and brace 





Fig. 82. Fig. 83. 

from two directions at right angles to each other. In 
horizontal boring, the first sight should be made while in 
the position shown in the illustration. The second posi- 
tion for sighting would be obtained by inclining the upper 
part of the body until the eye is on a level with the bit. 
In vertical boring, Fig. 83, the sighting of the bit would 
be done across the piece, then along it. 

Changing from one position to the other can be done 
easily and without interfering with the boring and should 
be done quite often, until the bit has entered well within 
the wood. 



BORING TOOLS. 



51 




Fig. 84. 



Fig. 84 illustrates a position which is frequently taken 
when boring in hard wood, or when using the screwdriver 
bit on large screws. The chin, resting upon the left hand, 
steadies the tool in the first case, and can be made to give 
additional pressure in the second. 

44. Thru Boring. — To avoid splitting 
the wood around the edge of the hole 
when it is desired to make a hole entirely 
thru a piece, bore from the face side un- 
til the point of the spur can be felt on the 
back. Then reverse the position of the board 
and, inserting the point of the spur in the 
hole just made, finish the boring from the 
back side. The bit must be held perpendicu- 
lar to the surface while boring from the 
second side, as well as the first, or some of the edge of 
the hole will be broken from the first side as the bit is 
forced thru. 

45. Boring to Depth. — When it is desired to bore to 
a given depth, turn the 
crank of the brace until 
the lips of the auger are 
just ready to cut the sur- 
face. With the rule, meas- 
ure the distance from the 
surface of the piece to the 
grip of the brace. Fig. 85. 
The brace may then be 

turned until this distance is diminished by the amount 
which represents the desired depth of the hole. 

Where many holes of the same depth are to be bored 




Fig. 85. 




52 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

much time will be saved by cutting a block the length of 
the exposed part of the bit when the hole is to the re- 
quired depth. This can be placed beside the bit so that 
the grip will strike it. Fig. 86. 



CHAPTER V. 

Chisels and Chiseling. 



46. Chisels. — Chisels are usually divided into two 
classes, the framing chisel, which is heavy and strong, 



Fig. 87. 



and the firmer chisel, which is lighter. The framing chis- 
el, Fig. 87, is used on heavy work such as the frames of 
buildings. Its handle is usually fitted into a socket and 
the top is tipped with leather or banded with iron to pre- 
vent its splitting when pounded with the mallet. The 




Fig. 88. • 

firmer chisel, Fig. 88, is used for lighter work without the 
mallet, such as paring, and its handle is usually fitted up- 
on a tang. 

The size of a chisel is indicated by the width of the 
cutting edge and varies from one-eighth of an inch to 
two inches. 

To do good work a chisel must be kept very sharp, and 
special care must be taken in handling it. Both hands 
should, at all times, be kept back of the cutting edge. 



54 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




Fig. 89. 



The action of a chisel driven into the wood with a mal- 
let is somewhat similar to that of a wedge. This must 
be taken into account when cutting dadoes, mortises, etc., 

where it is desired to cut away 
the waste exactly to a given line. 
If the chisel were beveled on two 
sides the action would be the 
same as that of a wedge ; that is, 
the wood would be pushed to 
either side equally. Since the 
bevel is on one side only, begin- 
ners are prone to think that the wedging takes place on 
one side only, the bevel side. Most of the wedging does 
take place on the wood at the bevel side, but there is 
enough pressure against the bevel to force the flat side 
of the chisel over the line slightly onto the part which it 
is not desired to cut. To overcome this action, chisel a 
line parallel to the given line, about one thirty-second of 
an inch away from it, on the waste. When the opening 
has been cut to depth, the chisel may be set exactly in 
the given line and driven to depth. The narrow margin 
of waste wood breaks off; the pressure against the bevel 
is therefore almost nothing. Fig. 89. 

47. Horizontal Paring Across the Grain. — In hori- 
zontal chiseling 
the work should 
be fastened so as y 
to leave both 
hands free to 
guide the chisel. Fig. 90. 

Fig. 90 shows the manner of holding the chisel. The left 




CHISELS AND CHISELING. 



55 




Fig. 91. 



hand rests against the piece of wood and the chisel is 
kept from cutting too far by the pressuie of the thumb 
and lingers of this hand. With the bevel 
side of the blade up, move the handle 
from right to left carefully while push- 
ing it forwards ; pare off pieces about 
one-sixteenth of an inch thick half way 
across from edge to edge. Fig. 91. When within a thirty- 
second of an inch from the gage line hold the chisel so 
that its cutting edge shall move obliquely across the grain 
and pare just to the gage line. The direction of the grain 
will determine which corner of the chisel is to cut ahead. 
In starting the last cut place the chisel squarely fn the 
gage line. 

The piece should be reversed and the cut finished by 
cutting in a similar manner from the second side. 

Fig. 92 illustrates a second 
method of horizontal paring. 
It differs from the first in that 
the chisel is turned while in 
the horizontal position so that 
one of the edges is free of the 
wood. By cutting first with 
one edge free, then the other, 
the surface may be lowered ^^^- ^^• 

until only a low ridge extends across the piece from edge 
to edge. This ridge may then be removed by cutting to 
the gage line in the usual manner. 

If the chisel is properly sharpened the surface may be 
left as smooth and as level as if planed. 




56 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




Fig. 93. 



48. Vertical Paring. — In vertical paring hold the chis- 
el as shown in Fig. 93. The left hand resting upon the 
wood, holds the wood in place, while the index finger and 
thumb of the left hand assist in placing and guiding the 

chisel. Only a small portion of 
the cutting edge can be used in 
vertical paring; the amount will 
depend upon the hardness of the 
wood and the strength of the 
student. Ordinarily, not more 
than one-quarter of an inch of 
the chisel width can be used for 
very soft woods and not more 
than one-eighth for hard woods. 
That part of the blade which is not used for cutting 
purposes is used as a guide to insure each cut's being 
in the same plane as the last. The chisel should be in- 
clined toward the -worker, the unused part of the blade 
pressed firmly against the part of the surface already cut. 
To make the cut, apply the needed pressure, at the same 
time moving the handle forward until the chisel shall 
have a vertical position as shown by the 
dotted lines in Fig. 94. Care must be 
taken to keep the broad surface of the 
chisel at right angles to the surface of the 
work at all times. The worker should so 
stand that he may look along the line as 
he cuts it. Otherwise he is in no position 
for sighting the chisel plumb. 

49. Oblique and Curved Line Paring. — Whether 
cutting with the grain or across the grain, care must be 




Fig. 94. 



CHISELS AND CHISELING. 



57 



taken in oblique and curved line paring to cut from the 
straight grain toward the end grain. Fig. 95. 




C. D-VVrono. 
O 

Fig. 95. Fig. 96. 

50. Paring Chamfers. — Fig. 96 illustrates two ways 
of holding the chisel in cutting chamfers. In one, the 
bevel side of the chisel is down and the cutting edge held 
at right angles to the grain. In the other, the flat side of 
the chisel is down and the cutting edge is worked oblique- 
ly to the grain. 

Frequently, it is desired to chamfer or bevel the end of 
a piece of wood with the chisel. To do this hold the cut- 
ting edge obliquely to the grain, the flat side of the chisel 
down. Fig. 97. The use of the framing chisel is de- 
scribed in connection with the making 
of the mortise. Part II. 



sr^v 




c 



Fig. 97. Fig. 98. 

51. The Firmer Gouge. — Fig. 98. The gouge is curv- 
ed in section and may have its bevel on either side. It is 




58 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

used for cutting grooves and hollowing out surfaces. The 
size of the gouge is determined by measuring the straight 

distance between 
the corners of the 
cutting edge. 

When roughing 
out where rather 
thick shavings may 
be taken, the gouge 
should be held as in 
Fig. 99, the blade 
'■ being held firmly in 

the left hand. When taking off thin shavings and in fin- 
ishing, the tool should be held as shown in Fig. lOO. In 
using the gouge avoid short strokes. Try to take as long 
and as even shavings as 
the nature of the work and 
the wood will allow. The 
thinner the shaving, the 
easier it will be to cut 
smoothly. A circular move- 
ment imparted to the cut- 
ting edge will enable the 
tool to cut more easily the 
end grain of wood, as is 
necessary in cutting the ends of grooves in pen-trays, etc. 

52. Grinding Beveled Edge Tools. — When edged 
tools become rounded over by repeated whettings or when 
they are nicked too deeply for the oilstone to remove the 
nicks, the grindstone is needed to cut the metal to the 




CHISELS AND CHISELING. 



59 




proper angle. Fig. loi shows the manner of holding the 
chisel upon the stone. The tool must be held firmly and 
at the same angle. This angle will depend upon the tem- 
per of the tool and the kind of wood to be cut, whether 

hard or soft, 
soft wood al- 
lowing the use 
of a sharper an- 
gle. On plane- 
irons the length 
' "~~~"of bevel or grind 
should be three- 
sixteenths or 
one- fourth of an inch; on the chisels, three-eighths or 
one-half an inch. The tool should not be kept in the 
middle of the stone but should be moved from right to 
left and vice versa across it as the grinding proceeds, that 
the surface of the stone may be worn as evenly as ix>ssible. 
The pressure of the left hand should be so applied that 
the stone shall cut straight across the blade. Examine 
the tool often, being careful to replace it each time as 
nearly as possible at the same angle. 
Fig. 1 02 shows the flat bevel which 
is to be obtained, also the rounded 
effect caused by frequent changing 
of the angle at which the tool is held. 
Grindstones are usually turned 
towards the tool because in doing 
so they will cut faster. 

Water is caused to flow on the stone for two reasons : 







Fig. 102. 



60 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

To keep the edge of the tool from being burned or soften- 
ed by the heat which friction would generate, and to wash 
off the particles of steel and stone, thus keeping the cut- 
ting surface clean that it may cut the more freely. 

53. Whetting Beveled Edge Tools. — The grind- 
stone does not sharpen tools; that is the work of the oil- 
stone. No tool, after it has been ground, is ready for use 
until it has been whetted. 

54. Oilstones. — Oilstones in common use are of two 

kinds ; those which are of very fine grained natural stone 
and those which are manufactured by pressing a powder- 
ed, metal cutting substance into rectangular forms. In 
selecting an oil-stone it should be remembered that the 
finer the grain, the keener the edge it will produce but the 
longer time it takes to produce it. 

Manufactured stones are frequently made ''two in 
one," that is, coarse and medium or medium and fine are 
put together in such a way that one side gives a rapid cut- 
ting and the other a slower but smoother cutting surface. 
The advantage of such a stone is easily understood. 

Oil is used on stones to cleanse the pores of the stone 
of the little particles of steel cut from the tool. Were it 
not for the oil's mixing with and removing these particles, 
the surface of the stone would soon become smooth and 
friction so reduced that the cutting power would be great- 
ly interfered with. 

While but a part of the stone need be used at one plac- 
ing of the tool, effort should be made to utilize as much of 
the surface as possible that the surface may be kept lev- 
el as long as possible. Stones that have worn uneven may 



CHISELS AND CHISELING. 



61 



have their surfaces leveled by rubbing them on a piece of 
sandpaper or emery paper placed on a flat surface. 

55. Sharpening the Chisel. — Hold the tool as shown 
in Fig. 103. Suppose the grinding produced a bevel of 
about twenty-five degrees, in whetting, effort should be 
made to hold the blade so as to produce an angle slightly 




Fig. 103. 

greater than this. The amount shown in Fig. 107 a and b 
is exaggerated. The aim at all times should be to keep 
this second angle as near like the first as is possible and 
still get a straight bevel to the cutting edge. 

To get the tool into proper position, lay it flat on the 
stone with the beveled edge resting in the oil which has 
previously been placed on the stone. The oil should be 
drawn to the place where the whetting is to be done, the 
back edge of the bevel being used to push and draw it to 
place. Gradually raise the handle of the tool until the oil 
is expelled from under the cutting edge; it is then in 
position. Use just enough oil to keep the surface well 
moistened where the whetting is being done. 

Rub the chisel back and forth, keeping it at the same 
angle all the time. A rocking motion and frequent change 



62 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



of angle will result in a rounded end instead of a straight 
bevel. Some workmen prefer to give the blade a circular 
instead of the forward and backward movement. 

To remove the feather or wire edge wdiich frequently 
results from over- whetting or from grinding, proceed as 
follows : Hold the tool with the flat side down, just a 
little above the stone, with the handle just a very little 
higher than the cutting edge. In one stroke push the cut- 
ting edge forward and dow^n on the stone, at the same 
time lowering the rear end to a level with the cutting 
edge. The effect of this movment is to turn the wire 
edge under and cut it off. If the first attempt does not 
remove it, whet the bevel just enough to turn the edge 
back on the flat side and try again. The presence of a 
feather edge is detected by rubbing the fingers along the 

flat side ever the cut- 
ting edg^.. If a still 
keener edge is desired 
it may be obtained by 
the use of a strop, a 
piece of leather fast- 
ened to a flat surface. 
Hold the tool as 
show^n in Fig. 104 and 
draw it toward you several times. Then hold it with the 
flat side down and draw it back once or twice. 

The angles of the bevels of a gouge are similar to those 
of a chisel. In sharpening, hold the tool at right angles 
to the edge of the stone, instead of parallel as with the 
chisel. Move it lengthwise of the stone, at the same time 




Fig. 104. 



CHISELS AND CHISELING. 



63 



rotating the handle so as to give the blade a circular mo- 
tion as from A to B, Fig. 105. 

The feather edge which is formed on the inside is re- 




FiG. 105 



Fig. 106. 



moved by a few strokes of a stone called a slip. Hold 
the slip firmly against the face so as not to form a bevel. 
Fig. 106. Slips are of various sizes ; one that fits the cur- 
vature of the gouge should be selected. 

56. Sharpening Plane-Irons.— Plane-irons are sharp- 
ened straight across like the chisel, with the exception of 
the jack plane, as previously noted. Their corners, how- 
ever, are very slightly rounded off to prevent their leaving 
marks on the wood. Where one plane is made to serve 
the purpose of smooth, jack and fore-plane, it should be 
ground straight across. In whetting, increase the pres- 
sure on the edges alternately so as to turn up a heavier 
feather edge there than in the middle, thus rounding the 
whole end very slightly. This feather edge may be re- 
removed in the usual manner. 

57. To Tell Whether a Tool is Sharp or Not.— 

Examine the cutting edge, holding the tool toward the 
light. If the tool is dull, the cutting edge will appear as 



64 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



2L white line, the broader the line the blunter the edge. 
Fig. 107 A. If the tool is sharp, no white line can be 
seen. Fig. 107 B. 






Fig. 107. 



Fig. 108. 



A better way — the method a mechanic would use — is 
to test the edge by drawing the thumb along it lightly. 
Fig. 108. If the tool is sharp one can feel the edge *'tak- 
ing hold." If dull, the thumb will slide along the edge as 
it would along the back of a knife blade. 

Good judgment is necessary in this test or a cut on the 
thumb may be the result. No pressure is required, just 
a touch along the edge at various points. 

What actually takes place is this : The cutting edge, if 
sharp, cuts the outer layer, the callous part of the ball of 
the thumb, just a little. The sense of feehng is so keen 
that the resulting friction, slight as it is, is transferred to 
the brain of the worker long before any injury need be 
done the thumb. If the tool is dull, no cut, hence no 
friction can result. Do not use the finger, as it is not 
calloused as is the thumb. 



CHAPTER VL 
Form Work, Modeling. 

58. Making a Cylinder.— The cylinder is evolved from 
the square prism by increasing the number of sides until 
a prism is formed with so many sides that its surface can 
be easily transformed into a cylinder by means of sand- 
paper. 

( I.) Begin by making a square prism which shall have 
the same dimensions for its width and thickness as is 
desired for the diameter of the cylinder. (2) Change 
this square prism to a regular octagonal or eight-sided 
prism by planing off the four arrises. The gage lines 

which indicate the amount to be 
taken off of each arris are made by 
holding the gage block against each 
of the surfaces and gaging from each 
(^il' arris each way, two lines on each 
surface. These lines must be made 
lightly. The distance at which to set 
■^^J/ the spur of the gage from the head is 

Fig. 109. equal to one-half the diagonal of the 

square end of the prism. Fig. 109. Since the ends are 
less likely to be accurate than any other part, it is advis 
able to get this distance as follows : Lay off two lines on 
the working face a distance apart equal to the width of 
the prism. These lines with the two arrises form a 




66 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



square the diagonal of which can be measured and one- 
half of it computed. 

Carpenters in working on large timbers lay the steel- 
square diagonally 
across so that there 
are twenty-four divi- 
sions from arris to 
arris. They then 
mark off the timber 
at seven and seven- 
teen inches. Fig. no. 
These numbers, while 
not mathematically 
correct, are near 
enough for practical 
purposes. In planing 
the arrises off, the 
piece mry be held in 
the vise or placed against the bench-stop. Fig. in. Care 
must be taken not to plane over the lines, for not only is 
the one side enlarged, but the adjacent side is lessened, 

thus exaggerating the error. 
(3) Judging with the eye the 
amount to take off, plane the 
eight arrises until there are 
sixteen equal sides. 

Again plane the arrises, 
making the piece thirty-two 
sided. On a small piece this 
^^^- ^^^- will be sufficient; if the piece 

is large, the process may be continued until the piece is 




Fig. 110. 




FORM WORK. 



67 



practically a cylinder. (4) To finish a small cylinder 
wrap a piece of sandpaper around it, rub lengthwise until 
the surface of the wood is smooth and the piece feels like 
a cylinder when revolved in the hand. 

59. The Spokeshave. — Fig. 112. The spokeshave is 
used principally to smooth curved surfaces. It may be 




drawn toward or pushed away from the worker, which- 
ever is more convenient. By means of screws, the blade 
may be adjusted to take light or heavy shavings. The 
spokeshave is practically a short plane with handles at the 
sides, and in using it the aim should be, as with the plane, 
to secure silky shavings of as great length as the nature 
of the work will allow. 

60, Making Curved Edges. — To make curved edges 
on a board, finger-gage on each side lines which shall in- 
dicate the amount of curva- 
ture. Fig. 113. 

If the curve is to be a grad- 
ual one reaching from one of 
these lines over the middle of 
the edge to the other two lines 
should also be finger-gaged on 
the edge. Finger-gage from 
each side using a distance equal to one-fourth the whole 
thickness of the piece. 




Fig. 113. 



68 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



With the spokeshave, Fig. 114, carefully cut off the 
two arrises to the pencil lines so as to form two bevels. 
This gives three surfaces to the edge of the board. Esti- 
mating the amount with the eye, cut off the two arrises 
formed by these three surfaces until five equal surfaces 




Fig. 114. 



Fig. 115. 



are formed in their place. This process may be repeated 
until the surface of the edge is practically a curved sur- 
tace. With a piece of sandpaper held as shown in Fig. 
115, rub until the surface is smooth and evenly curved. 

61. Modeling. — This term is used to apply to the 
method of making objects of such irregular form that the 
judgment of the worker must be depended upon to give 
the correct result without the aid of gage and knife 
marks. The forming of a canoe paddle or a hammer 
handle are good illustrations. 

Generally a little forethought will show a way in which 
the piece of work may be partly laid out with knife, 
square and rule. To illustrate, take the hammer handle, 
Fig. 116. The steps would be as follows: First, plane a 
face side and a face edge, and square the two ends so that 
the piece shall have the length desired for the finished 
handle. Second, draw a center line on the face side, par- 
allel to the face edge and lay off on either side of this the 



FORM WORK. 



69 



two straight lines which shall indicate the amount of 
taper; also sketch in the lines of curvature. Plane the 
two edges to the tapering lines and square wnth the face 

side. Then cut to the curved 
lines, keeping this surface also 
square with the face side. In 
a similar manner, lay off on 
the face edge a center line par- 
allel to the face side, mark the 
taper and lines of curvature, 
and work these surfaces as in 
the second step. Third, the 
piece may be laid off still fur- 
ther by drawing on the larger 
end the form of the ellipse 
which that end is to assume. With spokeshave, judging 
the curves of the middle with the eye, work out the de- 
sired form. The steel scraper is to be used for finishing 
after the piece has been made as smooth as is possible 
with the spokeshave. 




Fig. 116. 



CHAPTER VII. 



I. Laying Out Duplicate Parts. 2. Scraping and 
Sandpapering. 3. Fastening Parts. 

62, Laying out Duplicate Parts.— Frequently a piece 
of work will require the making of two or more like parts. 
To lay out these parts, that is, to mark out the location of 
intended gains, mortises, shoulders of tenons, etc., so that 

all shall be alike, the following 
method is used: (i) On the 
face edge of one of the pieces 
measure off with the rule and 
mark with knife the points at 
which the lines for the joints 
are to be squared across. If 
knife marks would show on the 
finished surface as scratches, 
use a sh'irp pencil instead. (2) 
Lay the pieces on the bench top with the face edges up; 
even the ends with the try-square. Fig. 117. Square 
lines across the edges of all of them at the points pre- 
viously marked on one of them. The pieces may then 
be separated and lines corresponding to the lines just 
made on the face edges, be carried across the face sides 
of each piece separately, the try-square beam being held 
against the face edge in so doing, of course. 

In all duplicate work the aim of the worker should be 




Fig. 117. 




LAYING our. ' 71 

to make as much use as possible of the tool he has in 
hand before laying it down and taking another. To illus- 
trate, if there should be a number of like parts each re- 
quiring two different settings of the gage, he should mark 
all of the parts at the first setting, then all at the second 
setting rather than to change the gage for each piece so 
that each piece might be completely marked before another 
is begun. 

63. Scraping. — In smoothing hard wood surfaces, a 
scraper will be found helpful. If the grain should hap- 
pen to be crossed or curled, a scraper will 
become a necessity. The plane-iron may be 
made ever so sharp and the cap-iron set 
ever so close to the cutting edge, still the 
surface of some woods will tear. Sandpaper 
must not be depended upon to smooth a torn surface. 

Cabinet scrapers for plane and convex surface work are 
rectangular pieces of saw steel. Fig. ii8 shows a swan- 
neck scraper suitable for smoothing concave surfaces. 

Beginners frequently mistake surfaces which have been 
planed at a mill for smooth surfaces. They are not ; and, 
unless the ''hills and hollows" which extend across the 
surface of every mill-planed piece of lumber are re- 
moved before the finish of stain or filler is applied, the 
result will be very unsatisfactory. 

These "hills and hollows" are present even in the 
smoothest of mill-plane surfaces. The reason is easily 
understood. When a board is mill-planed, it is run 
through a machine which has a flat bed over which the 
board is moved and above which revolve two knives. 



12 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Fig. 119. Unless the grain of wood is very badly cross- 
ed or curled, it will be found very much easier, and time 








fl--j)€hver^'Rcller. P -"Ro Her. 
B-6vjlTer \\ e<^cL. Er -T? o 1 1 e r 
C-Teeid l^oller. V^hoMi\. 
Fig. 119. 



-^^ 




YT^ 



G-V/ork T^Ule. 
W,Kr?ive^. 



^ 



will be saved if the mill marks are removed with a 
smooth-plane before the scraper is applied. 

Scrapers may be pushed or pulled. Fig. 120. When 
properly sharpened thin silky shavings will be cut off. 
The cutting edge of a scraper is a bur which is formed 





Fig. 120. Fig. 121. 

at an arris and turned at very nearly a right angle to the 
surface of the scraper. 

When a scraper becomes dull ( i ) each edge is draw- 
filed, Fig. 121, so as to make it square and straight, with 
the corners slightly rounded. Sometimes the edges are 
rounded slightly from end to end to prevent digging. 



LAYING OUT. 



73 



Frequently the scraper has its edges and surfaces ground 
square on an oilstone after the drawfihng that the arrises 
may be formed into smoother burs. (2) After filing, 
the scraper is laid flat on the bench and the arrises forced 
over as in Fig. 122. The tool used is called a burnisher; 
any smooth piece of steel would do. (3) Next, turn 
these arrises back over the side of the scraper. Fig. 123. 
Great pressure is not necessary to form the burs properly. 





Fig. 122. 



Fig. 123. 



64. Sandpapering, — To knov^ when to use and when 
not to use sandpaper is as much the sign of a good work- 
man as to know how to use the tools. 

Sandpaper should never be used until all tool work 
has been done as well, and carried as far as is possible. 
Sandpaper is, as its name implies, sand paper. In sand- 
ing a surface, this fine sand becomes imbedded in the 
wood and should an edged tool be used thereon it will be 
dulled. Slovenly work should never be done in expecta- 
tion of using sandpaper to fix it up. This practice is dis- 
honest. Sandpaper should not be expected to do the 
work of edged tools or disappointment will follow. The 
sandpaper sheet, for use, is usually divided into four 
parts, one of these parts being of good size for large 
work. 




74 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

For flat surfaces these pieces are placed on a sand- 
paper block. This block is but a piece of wood squared 
up to a length equal to that of the piece of paper and to 
such a width that the edges of the paper will extend far 
enough up the edges of the block to allow the fingers to 
grasp them firmly. Fig. 124. Do not waste the paper 
by wrapping it around in such a way as to throw part of 
it on top of the block. The block should be held flat up- 
on the surface when sanding near an 
arris, otherwise the arris will be round- 
ed. The arrises should be kept sharp 
unless on a table leg, arm of a chair or 
something similar, in which the sharp 
Fig. 124. arrises would be likely to injure the 

hand or become splintered through usage. In such cases 
.the sandpaper may be run along the arrises once or twice, 
just enough to remove the sharpness. Sometimes the 
plane is set shallow and drawn over the arris after the 
surfaces have been squared, to remove the sharpness. 

On curved surfaces, the sandpaper is held free in the 
hand, no block being used. Fig. 115 illustrates the man- 
ner of sanding the convex curve of the coat hanger. The 
sandpaper should be rubbed along the grain and the rub- 
bing should proceed only long enough to smooth the 
piece and to bring out the grain clearly. 

On the back of a piece of sandpaper will be found a 
number. This number indicates the relative coarseness 
of the sand sprinkled upon the glue covered paper. 00, 
o, I , I J^ and 2 are the numbers commonly used ; 00 being 
finest and 2 relatively coarse. On table tops and sur- 
faces which are not very smooth to begin with, the coarse 



LAYING OUT. /5 

sandpaper is first used, this is followed by the next in 
coarseness and so on until the finest is used. 

Never attempt to sandpaper surfaces or parts which are 
to be put together later on to form joints, the edge tools 
alone must be depended upon to secure proper smoothing. 

65, Hammers. — Fig. 125 shows the two kinds of ham- 
mers most commonly used by workers in wood. The 
plain faced hammer has a flat face and is somewhat 

easier to learn to 
s'^^^ use than the bell- 

'^^^m. faced hammer, 
Hkioale ^j which has a 

slightly rounded 
face. The advan- 
tage of the bell- 
faced hammer 
lies in one's ability to better set a nail slightly below the 
surface without the assistance of the nailset. This is a 
very great advantage on outside or on rough carpenter 
work. This setting of the nail with the hammer leaves 
a slight depression, however, in the wood, and is there- 
fore not suited for inside finishing. 

The handle of the hammer is purposely made quite 
long and should be grasped quite near the end. 

66. Nails. — Nails originally were forged by hand and 
were therefore very expensive. Later strips were cut 
from sheets of metal and heads were hammered upon 
these by means of the blacksmith's hammer, the vise be- 
ing used to hold the strips meanwhile. These were called 
cut nails. Early in the nineteenth century a machine was 




76 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



T^ 



i^ 



"W W YT 



invented which cut the nails from the sheet metal and 
headed them. 

Steel wire nails have about supplanted the cut nails for 
most purposes. They are made by a machine which cuts 
the wire from a large reel, points and heads the pieces 
thus cut off. 

Wire nails, like cut nails, are roughly classed by wood- 
workers as common, finishing and casing nails. Thin 
nails with small heads are called brads. Wire nails are 
bought and sold by weight, the size of wire according to 
the standard wire gage and the length in inches being 
taken into consideration in specifying the size and fixing 
the price per pound. 

In former practice, the size of nails was specified ac- 
cording to the number of pounds 
that one thousand of any variety 
would weigh. Thus the term six- 
penny and eig"htpenny referred 
to varieties which would weigh 
six and eight pounds per thous- 
and, respectively, penny being 
B A A B c a corruption of pound. In pres- 

• ent practice, certain sizes are still 

roughly specified as three, four, six, eight, ten, twenty 
and thirty penny. 

Common wire nails are thick and have large flat heads. 
They are used in rough work where strength is desired. 
Fig. 126 A. Finishing nails. Fig. 126 B, are used for 
fine work such as inside woodwork, cabinet work, etc. 
Casing nails, Fig. 126 C, are somewhat thicker and 
stronger than finishing nails ; they have small heads. 



1^ ^ 



LAYING OUT. 



77 




Fig. 127. 



67. Nailing, — Especial care is necessary in starting cut 
nails. Fig. 127 shows two views of a cut nail. From 

-fr f? these it will be seen that the sides of the 
nail form a wedge in one of the views 
while in the other they are parallel. The 
nail should be so started that the wedging 
action shall take place along, not across 
the grain. 

In nailing through one piece into the 
edge of another, assume a position so that 
you can look along the piece into the edge 
of which you are nailing. Fig. 128. If 
the nail is to be driven plumb, it must be 
sighted from two directions several times in the begin- 
ning of the nailing. Having driv- 
en the points of the nails slightly 
below the surface of the first piece, 
adjust the two pieces properly, 
force the points into the second 
piece, and, holding the parts firmly 
with the left hand, drive the nails 
into place. 

68. Nailset. — Excej t in rough 
work, the nail should not be driven 
entirely in with the hammer or the 
wood will be marred. A nailset 
held as in Fig. 129 should be used 
to set the head of the nail slightly 
below the surface of the wood — 
about one thirty-second of an inch. A finger placed 
against the side of the nailset and allowed to rest on the 




Fig. 128. 



78 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 





piece of wood aids greatly in guiding the set, which 

otherwise might jump off the nail head when the blow 

is struck and indent the wood. 
69. Withdrawing Nails. -Should 

it be necessary to withdraw a nail, 

place a block of wood under the 

head of ^the hammer. Fig. 130, to 

prevent marring the surface of the 

wood. If the 
nail is a long 
one, the size 
of ' th( block Fig. 129. 

used should be increased as the nail 
comes out, that the nail may not be 
bent. 

70. The Screwdriver.— Patent 
ratchet and spiral screwdrivers have 
come into quite common use among 
workers in wood. The old style. 
Fig. 131, however, is much better 
Fig. 130. suited to elementar}^ work than any 

of these special forms. 



Fig. 131. 

71. Screws.— Screws, like nails, are made entirely by 
machinery. They are packed in pasteboard boxes and 
sold by the gross. The size of a screw is designated by 
the length in inches and the size of the wire from which 
it is made; thus, i inch No. 10 flat-head bright screw. 



LAYING OUT. 



79 



The gage of wire for nails and the gage of wire for 
screws should not be confused. Fig. 132 is a full-sized 
illustration of the gage used for determining the size of 




7^ 






Fig. 132. 

wire for nails. The numbers apply to the openings at 
the edge, not to the circular parts. The notch at No. i 
will just slip over No. i wire. Fig. 135 is a full-sized 
illustration of a wire gage for screws. The gage is slip- 
ped over the screw just below the head. 

Flathead screws are used for ordinary work. 
Roundhead screws are used because they are 
more ornamental. Fig. 133. Either kind may 
be made of steel or brass. Steel screws are of- 
ten blued by treating them with heat or an acid. 

72. Fastening with Screws. — Where two pieces of 
hard wood are to be fastened with screws, a hole just 




I'iG. 133. 



80 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




large enough to take in the shank of the screw must be 
bored in the upper part. In the loAver part, a hole should 
be bored just large enough to take in the core of the screw 
snugl]. Fig. 134. 
For flathead screws, 
the hole should be 
countersunk so that 
Fig. 134 the head may be 
flush or sunk slightly below the 
surface of the wood. In soft 
woods, the boring of a hole in 
the lower piece may be omitted. 

73. Glue.— Nails are but 
seldom used in cabinet work to 
fasten pirts together; glue be- 
ing used instead. Glue is man- 
ufactured from the refuse parts 
of animals. Strippings of hide, 
bone, horn, hoofs, etc., are boil- 
ed to a jelly; chemicals are ad- 
ded to give it the light color. 
It is usually placed on the mar- 
ket in the form of dry chips. 

Glue pots are made double, 
the glue being placed in one 
part and this placed in a larger 
one which contains water. 

The glue is heated by the hot 
water and steam of the outer 
kettle. Fig. 136. 

To prepare glue, dissolve the dry chips in water 




Fig. 135 



It is 




LAYING OUT. 81 

well to soak them over night unless quite thin. If the glue 
chips are thin they may be barely covered with water and 
the pot set in the outer kettle of boiling water. Some 
kinds of glue require less water. The 
glue should be stirred occasionally. It 
should be used while hot and should be 
made thin enough to flow easily when 
applied with a brush. If the wood is 
cold it will chill the elue. Best results 
are obtained by warming the wood in an 
oven. 

Prepared liquid glues, to be applied without heating, 
are common. As these glues thicken with age, due to 
evaporation, they must be thinned occasionally. In cold 
weather they chill and must be warmed in hot water to 
bring them to a proper consistency. 

74. Clamps. — Clamps are used in the making of a glue 
joint to expel the glue from the 
surfaces of contact, forcing it up 
into the pores of the wood or, if 
too' much has been applied, out on 
the sides of the joint. For hold- 
ing small parts, the wooden hand- 
screw is used, Fig. 137. To ad- 
just this clamp, hold the handle of n- ~-^ 

the shoulder spindle firmly in the =~7^r^=^^ 

left hand and the handle of the t:f| 

end spindle in the right hand; re- K^^^ 

volve them about an axis midway 

between and parallel to the spindles until the approximate 




82 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Opening of the jaw is obtained, Fig. 138. Place the clamp 
on the parts and screw the shoulder spindle up tight, ad- 
justing the end spindle when neces- 
sary so that when it is tightened 
the jaws of the clamp shall be par- 
allel. Fig. 139. In taking off this 





m 



[QcorrecT^ 

Fig. 138. Fig. 139. 

clamp, the end spindle is the one which must be released. 

Fig. 140 illus- 
trates three kinds 
of bar clamps such 
as are used for 
clamping wide 
frames and boards. 

Fig. 141 illus- 
trates a simple 
form of clamp 
which can be made 
by the student him- 
self. Two wedges 




Fig. UO. 



to each clamp, driven in with the hammer, supply the 



LAYING OUT. 



83 




necessary pressure. Whenever finished surfaces are to 
be clamped, blocks of wood must be placed between them 
and the clamp jaws to prevent 
their being marred. 

75. Gluing. — Where the end 
grain is to form part of a glue 
joint, it is necessary to apply a 
glue size first. 

This is done by filling the open ' -^4^ 
grain of the end with a prelimi- 
nary coating of thin, 
hot glue. ^ 

Rubbed glue joints 
require no clamps. 



U- 




::£. 



s 



Fig. 141. 
The edges are jointed perfectly straight, 
glue is applied to each and they are then 
rubbed together with as great pressure as 
is possible to expel the glue. When this is 

properly done the pieces will hold together and may be 

set away to dry. Fig. 142. 



Fig. 142.' 



PART 11. 

SIMPLE JOINERY. 

Chapter VIII. 
Type Forms. 

76. Joinery. — This term in its broader meaning refers 
to the art of framing the finishing work of a house, such 
as doors and windows; and to the construction of per- 
manent fittings, such as mantels, cupboards, hnen presses, 
etc. Joinery as used herein refers merely to the putting 
together of two or more parts, called the members. 

77. General Directions for Joinery: — Take into con- 
sideration the direction of the grain in planning the rela- 
tive positions of the members. Make due allowance where 
shrinkage is likely to be considerable. 

As far as possible, plan to have the members join face 
to face. Face sides are more likely to be true than are 
the other two surfaces and therefore the joints are more 
likely to fit properly. 

Make all measurements from a common starting point, 
as far as practicable. Remember to keep the head of the 
gage, and the beam of the trysquare against one or the 
other of the faces, unless there should be special reasons 
for doing otherwise. 

In practice it is sometimes advisable to locate the sides 
of a joint by superposition rather than by measurement. 



TYPE FORMS. 



85 




Fig. 143. 



Laying out by superposition consists in placing one mem- 
ber upon another and marking upon the second member 
the width, thickness or length of the first. Fig. 143. 

Usually, it is found possible to 
locate and square with knife and 
trysquare a line to represent one 
of the sides of the joint. The 
/first member is then held so that 
one of its arrises rests upon this 
line, and a point is made with 
knife at; the other arris. The 
superimposed piece is then removed and a line made with 
knife and try-square — not thru the mark of the knife 
point but inside, just touching it. 

Where several members or parts are to be laid out, cut 
and fitted, it is of the utmost importance that the work be 
done systematically. System and power to visualize — 
that is, to see things in their proper relation to one another 
in the finished piece — make it possible for men to lay out 
and cut the members to the 
most intricate frames of build- 
ings before a single part has 
been put together. Lay out 
duplicate parts and duplicate 
joints as suggested in Chapter 
VII, Section 62. Where several 
joints of a similar size and 
kind are to be fitted, mark the 
different parts to each joint 
with the same number or letter as soon as fitted that no 
other member may be fitted to either of these. Fig. 144. 




Fig. 144. 



86 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

On small pieces, such as the stool, it is possible to aid in 
visualizing by setting up the posts in the positions they 
are to occupy relative to one another, marking roughly, 
as with a penciled circle, the approximate location of the 
mortises, auger holes, etc. The members may then be 
laid on the bench and accurately marked without danger 
of misplacing the openings. 

While the knife is used almost exclusively in laying out 
joints, there are a few instances in which a pencil, if well 
sharpened and used with slight pressure is preferable. To 
illustrate, suppose it is desired to locate the ends of the 
mortises in the posts. Fig. 144. To knife entirely across 
the surfaces of the four pieces and around the sides of 
each as would be necessary to locate the ends of the mor- 
tises, would injure the surfaces. Instead, pencil these 
lines and gage between the pencil lines. Those parts of the 
pencil lines enclosed by the gage lines — the ends of the 
mortises^ — may then be knifed, if desired, to assist in plac- 
ing the chisel for the final cut. 

In sawing joints in hard wood, the saw should be made 
to cut accurately to the line, Chapter II, Section 14. 
When working soft wood, beginners are often permitted 





Fig. 145. F'g. 146. 

to leave a small margin — about one thirty-second of an 
inch — ^between the knife and the saw kerf. This mar- 
gin is afterwards pared away with the chisel. 

78. Dado,— A dado. Fig. 145, is made by cutting a rect- 
angular groove entirely across one member into which the 



TYPE FORMS. 87 

end of another member fits. Dadoes are cut across the 
grain of the wood ; when similar openings are cut parallel 
to the grain, they are called simply, grooves. Dadoes are 
used in the making of shelving, window and door frames, 
etc. 

79. Directions for Dado. — ( i ) Locate by means of 
the rule one side of the dado and mark its position with 
the point of the knife. (2) At this point, square a sharp 
line across the piece with knife and trysquare. (3) By 
superposition, locate and mark the second side. (4) 
Square these lines across the edges of the piece a distance 
equal to the approximate depth of the dado. (5) Set the 
gage for the required depth and gage between the knife 
lines on the two edges. (6) Saw just far enough inside 
the knife lines that the sides of the dado may be finished 
to the lines with the chisel. Chapter II, Section 14. Saw 
down just to the gage lines, watching both edges that the 
kerfs be not made too deep. (7) Chisel out the waste until 
the bottom of the dado is smooth and true. Chapter V, 
Section 47. Test the bottom as shown in Fig. 146. Two 
brads are driven into a block having a straight edge until 
they project a distance equal to the proposed depth of the 
dado. (8) Pare the sides of the dado to the knife lines. 
Chapter V, Section 48. These sides might be finished in 
another way, by setting a wide chisel in the knife line and 
tapping it gently with a mallet. If care is taken the suc- 
cessive settings of the chisel need not show. 

Where the dado is to be cut on a piece narrow enough 
that the saw may be made to follow the line accurately, it 
is considered better practice to saw accurately to the line. 
Chapter II, Section 14. 




88 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

80. Cross-Lap Joint. — Usually, stock for the two 
members of the cross-lap joint can be best planed to width 
and thickness in one piece. Place two sets of face marks 

on the piece, so that 
there shall be one set of 
marks on each member 
after they are separated. 

Two methods of making 

Fig. 147. +u- • • ■. • t-i 

this jomt are given, i he 

first is safer for beginners ; the second, because the mem- 
bers cannot be tried until the joints are completed, is an 
excellent test of one's ability. Fig. 147. 

81. Directions for Cross-Lap Joint. — First Method: 
( I ) Square the two ends, measure from each of these the 
desired length of each member, square knife lines around, 
saw apart,finishing the ends square to the lines. (2) 
Measure from one end of each member the required dis- 
tance to the nearer edge of the joint. Since the corres- 
ponding faces of the two members must be on the same 
side of the piece when the parts are put together, it will be 
necessary to lay off the groove of one member on the face 
and of the other member on the side opposite the face. If 
the joints are to be in the middle of each member but one 
measurement need be made. Chapter VII, Section 62. 
(3) Square sharp knife lines across at these points. (4) 
By superposition, locate and knife the second edge of each 
joint. (5) If the joints are to be in the middle of each 
member, before proceeding further, test to see that the 
lines have been laid out properly. If the members are 
placed side by side and the ends evened as in laying out 
in (2) above, the lines will of necessity correspond. Turn 



TYPE FORMS. 



89 




one of the members end for end and even the two ends; 
the Hnes ought still to correspond. If they do not, points 
marked midway between the corresponding lines will give 

the correct position for the 
new lines, Fig. 148. (6) 
Extend the knife lines just 
made across the two adjoin- 
FiG. 148. ing surfaces of each mem- 

ber. (7) Set the g*age for the required depth and gage 
between the knife lines on these surfaces. Tho the 
groove on one member is laid out on the side opposite 
the face, do not make the mistake of holding the head of 
the gage against other than the face. (8) Saw accurately, 
Chapter II, Section 14, tO' the knife lines and tO' a depth 
indicated by the gage lines. (9) Chisel out the waste stock. 
Chapter V, Section 47. (10) Test as shown in Fig. 149. A 

well made cross-lap joint is one 
in which the members can be 
put together with the pressure 
of the hands and which will 





Fig. 149. Fig. 150. 

not fall apart of their own weight. Fig. 150 shows the 
results of "forcing a fit." 

82. Directions for Cross-Lap ioint.— Second Meth- 
od. The two members are to be planed to width and thick- 
ness in one piece but are not to be separated until the 



90 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

grooves have been laid out and cut. The grooves must be 
laid out by measurement only, since superposition is im- 
possible. The positions of the grooves relative to the faces 
are, as in the first method, one on the face and one on the 
side opposite. The gaging for both is done from the faces. 

83. Glue Joint. — Frequently it becomes necessary to 
glue together a number of boards to make one wide 
enough to meet the requiremnts of the work in hand. 
A table top is a good illustration. A properly glued 
butt joint ought to be stronger than the natural wood. 

When the wood is of sufficient thickness, the joint may 
be reinforced by means of dowels. The jointer should be 
used for planing the edges. It is extremely difficult to pre- 
pare edges for glue joints with the shorter planes. The 
jack plane should be used to rough off the edges and pre- 
pare them for the jointer. 

84, Directions for Glue Joint. — (i) If the boards 
are in the rough, plane one surface of each true and out of 
wind. (2) Pencil the face marks upon these surfaces and 
indicate in some way the direction of the surface grain as 
well. Later, it will be necessary to plane both pieces at 
once in surfacing over the joints, and unless the parts are 

fitted with proper regard to 

the grain, it will be impossible 

to plane one without rough- 
FiG 1 SI 

in^ Up the Other. Then too, the 
faces should be so selected that the warpage of one shall 
counteract the warpage of the other. Fig. 151 shows the 
manner of placing the pieces. Observe the rings of growth 
Chapter 12. (3) Joint one edge of each piece straight and 
square. The final plane strokes must be taken the full 



TYPE FORMS. 



91 



length of the board and the plane-iron must be set very 
shallow. Since the shrinkage is more at the ends than in 
the middle, sometimes the middles of long boards are 





Fig. 152. Fig. 153. 

planed just a shaving or two lower than the ends. (4) 
Place one of the boards in the vise, jointed edge up, and 
place the other board in position on it. Four tests are com- 
monly used : First, placing the eye on a level with the joint 
and looking toward the light, Fig. 152; second, tapping 
the under board lightly to see if the top board "rocks" ; 
third, sliding the top board lengthwise slowly to "feel" 
for suction; fourth, holding a straightedge as shown in 
Fig. 153 to see that the faces 
lie in the same plane. (5) 
Glue the edges, Fig. 154. 
Work rapidly but carefully. 
(6) Place the parts in the 
clamps and set away to dry; 
ten hours is usually long 
enough. Keep the faces as , 
even as possible in applying 
the clamps. (7) When the 
glue has hardened the clamps may be removed, the sur- 
plus glue scraped off and the parts treated as one piece 
in squaring it up. 



S^i-'^ 




92 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING, 



85, Doweling, — Dowels are small wooden pins used 
in joining parts together. Dowels can be bought ready 
made in a variety of sizes. If desired short dowels may be 
made as follows : ( i ) Select straight-grained strong wood 
— beech, birch or oak; waste wood can usually be found 
that will do. (2) Split, not saw, these pieces roughly to 
square prisms. The blocks from which they are to be split 
should not be over eight or ten inches long to work well. 
(3) Plane off the irregularities, roughly rounding the 

pieces to size. (4) Point the 
ends slightly and drive the 
pieces thru a dowel plate. 
Fig. 155. The pegs should be 
driven thru the larger hole 
first. The holes of the dowel 
plate are larger in diameter on 
one side of the plate than on 
the other to give clearance to 
the peg as it is driven thru. 
The cutting edge of the hole is at the smaller diameter ; 
place that side of the plate up. Never use a hammer as it 
would split the top of the peg and would ruin the cutting 
edge of the dowel plate should it strike it. Use a. mallet, 
and when the peg is nearly thru finish by striking a 
second peg placed upon the head of the first. 

86, Directions for Doweling. — (i) Place the 
boards to be doweled side by side in the vise, the face sides 
out, and even the jointed edges. (2) Square lines across 
the two edges with knife and trysquare at points where it 
is desired to locate dowels. (3) Set the gage for about 
half the thickness of the finished board and gage from the 




Fig. 155. 




TYPE FORMS. 93 

face side across the knife lines. (4) At the resulting cross- 
es bore holes of the same diameter as that of the dowel. 
These holes should be bored to a uniform depth. Count 
the turns of the brace. One inch is a good depth for or- 
dinary work. (5) Countersink the holes slightly, just 
enough to remove the sharp arrises. This removes any bur 
and allows a little space into which the surplus glue may 
run. (6) Cut the sharp arrises off the dowel, just enough 

to allow it to be started into the 
hole. (7) With a stick slightly 
smaller than the hole, place glue 
upon the sides of the hole, and 
drive the dowel in. A small V-' 
shaped groove previously cut 
^^^- ^^^- along the side of the dowel will 

allow the surplus glue to escape and thus prevent 
any danger of splitting the board. (8) Clean off the sur- 
plus glue, unless the members can be placed together be- 
fore it has had time to set. (9) Saw off the dowels to a 
length slightly less than the depth of the holes in the sec- 
ond piece. (10) Trim off the sharp arrises. Fig. 156. 

(11) Glue the holes and the edge of the second board. 

(12) Put the two members in the clamps and set away 
until the glue has had time to harden. 

87, Keyed Tenon-and-Mortise,— Fig. 157 shows the 
tenon, the mortise in the second member into which the 
tenon fits, the mortise in the tenon and its key or wedge. 

88. Directions for Key:— Keys are made in quite a 
variety of shapes. Some of the simple forms are shown 
in Fig. 158. Where two or more keys of the same size 
are to be made, it is customary to plane all in one piece. 



94 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



(i) Plane a face side, a face edge, gage and plane to 
thickness. If there is more than one key, saw each to 
length. (2) Shape the remaining edge as desired. The 




Fig. 157. 

lines AB and CD, Fig. 158, indicate the points at which 
measurements are to be made to determine the length of 
mortise in the tenon which is to receive the key. These 
lines should be laid off at a distance apart equal to the 
thickness of the tenon. 

89, Directions for Tenon, — (i) Measure from the 
end of the piece the length of the tenon, and mark with a 
knife point. Where tenons are to be cut on both ends of 
a piece, measurement is frequently made from the middle 
of the piece each way to lo- 
cate the shoulders. Should 
there be any variation in 
the length of the piece 
from what it should be. 
this difference will then be 
equally divided at the ends. This is done when it is more 
important to have the distance between the shoulders of a 
definite length than that the tenons be of correct length. 





Fig. 158. 



TYPE FORMS. 95 

(2) Square knife lines entirely around the piece at the 
knife point mark. (3) Set the gage equal to the distance 
required from the face edge to the nearest edge of the ten- 
on and mark on both sides, as far as the shoulder marks, 
and on the end. (4) Repeat, setting the gage from the face 
edge to the farther edge of the tenon. If the two mem- 
bers are of the same width and the tenon and mortise are 
to be equally distant from the face edge, both tenon and 
mortise should be gaged with the same settings. Fre- 
quently, the gage settings are obtained from the rule in- 
directly. The rule is laid across the piece and the width 





Fig. 159. Fig. 160. 

or thickness of mortise or tenon marked with the point 
of a knife blade. Fig. 159. The spur of the gage is then 
set in one of these points, the block being pushed firmly 
against the face; the thumb-screw is then fastened, Fig. 
160. The second setting is obtained in a similar manner 
from the same edge or side. All the pieces are marked 
for the first width before resetting. (5) After having laid 
out the mortise in the tenon, rip to the gage lines and 
cross-cut to the shoulder lines, paring if necessary. (6) 
Slightly bevel the ends of the tenon. 

90, Directions for Mortise, — (i) From one end of 
the piece measure and mark with the knife point the re- 



96 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

spective distances to the two edges of the mortise. (2) 
Square lines across the face edge and the two broad sur- 
faces at these points. (3) Set the gage equal to the re- 
quired distance from the face edge to the nearer edge of 
the mortise and mark between the lines. (4) Set the gage 
equal to the required distance from the face edge to the 
farther edge of the mortise and mark between the lines. 
Make both gage lines on face side and side opposite as 
well. (5) Cut the mortises. First, bore a series of holes 
thru the mortise, using a bit somewhat smaller than 
the width of the mortise. Bore these holes so that they 
connect one with another. (6) Place the 
piece on a chiseling board and, taking 
thin cuts about half way thru, work 
^^^ from the middle of the mortise out to 
within one thirty-second of an inch of 
the knife and gage lines. (7) Reverse 
and chisel from the other side, finishing 
Fig. 161. -^ . ^^^^^ chisel the first side out to the 

lines. Test the sides of the mortise with a straight edge — 
the blade of the chisel makes a good one — to see that they 
are cut straight. Fig. 161. 

91, Directions for Mortise in the Tenon. — ( i ) Lay 
out the sides of the mortise for the key before the sides 
and shoulders of the tenons are cut. From the shoulder 
line of the tenon, measure toward the end a distance 
slightly less — about one thirty-second of an inch — than 
the thickness of the member thru which the tenon is 
to pass. This is to insure the key's wedging against the 
second member. (2) Square this line across the face 
edge and on to the side opposite the face side. (3) On 




TYPE FORMS. 



97 



^M.^i^-^t'* 



the top surface measure from the line just squared around 
the piece a distance equal to the width the key is to have 
at this point when in place, Fig. 158, A B. (4) Square 
a pencil line across the surface at this point. (5) In a sim- 
ilar manner, measure and locate a line on the opposite side, 
C D, Fig. 158. (6) Set the gage and mark the side of the 
mortise nearer the face edge on face side and side oppos- 
ite. (7) Reset, and from the face edge gage the farther 
side of the mortise, marking both sides. (8) This mor- 
tise may be bored and chiseled like 
the one preceding. As one side of 
the mortise is to be cut sloping, a 
little more care will be needed. 

92, Blind Mortise -and -Tenon, 
Probably no joint has a greater vari- 
ety of applications than .the blind 
mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 162. It is of 
equal importance to carpentry, join- 
ery and cabinet-making. The tenon 
shown has four shoulders ; it is often 
made with but three or two. 

93, Directions for Tenon, — (i) Measure from the 
end of the piece the length of tenon, (see also direc- 
tions for tenon. Section 89) and mark with the point of 
a knife. (2) Square knife lines entirely around the four 
sides at this point to locate the shoulders. (3) Lay the 
rule across the face edge near the end of the piece and 
mark points with the end of the knife to indicate the 
thickness of the tenon, Fig. 159. (4) With the head of 
the gage against the face side, set the spur of the gage in 
one of these marks, then fasten the set screw, Fig. 160. 




Fig. 162. 



98 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

Gage on the end and the two edges as far back as the 
knife lines. When there are several tenons remember to 
mark all of them before resetting. (5) Set the gage in 
the other mark, the head of the gage being placed against 
the face side; then gage as before. (6) In a similar 
manner, place the rule across the face side, mark points 
with the knife for the width of tenon, set the gage to 
these points, and gage on the face and side opposite as 
far as the shoulder lines and across the end. The head 
of the gage must be held against the face edge for both 
settings. (7) Rip to all of the gage lines first, then cross- 
cut to the shoulder lines, using back-saw. (8) The end 
of the tenon may be slightly beveled that it may be start- 
ed into the mortise without tearing off the arrises of the 
opening. 

94. Directions for Laying out Mortise,— (i) From 
one end of the piece measure the required distance to the 
nearer and the farther ends of the mortise. Mark points 
with the knife. (2) Square lines across at these points. 
( 3 ) Lay the rule across the face into which the mortise is 
to be cut and mark points with the knife for the sides of 
the mortise. (4) Set the gage as was done for the tenon, 
the spur being placed in the knife point mark and the 
head of the gage being pushed up against the face. Gage 
between the cross lines. (5) Reset from the same face 
for the other side of the mortise, and then gage. 

If a mortise or tenon is to be placed in the middle of a 
piece, find the middle of the piece, Fig. 3, Chapter I, Sec- 
I, and with the knife, place points to each side of the cen- 
ter mark at a distance equal to one half the thickness or 
width of the tenon or mortise. When several mortises or 



TYPE FORMS. 99 

tenons of the same size are to be laid out and are to be 
equally distant from a face, the gage needs to be set but 
twice for all — once to mark the nearer edges and once for 
the farther edges of the tenon or mortise. Should there be 
several like members with like joints, the gage settings 
obtained from the first piece will suffice for all. 

The importance of working from face sides or face 
edges only, cannot be overestimated. To work from eith- 
er of the other two sides of a piece would make the joints 
subject to any variation in the widths or thicknesses of 
the pieces. To gage from the faces only, insures mortises 
and tenons of exact size no matter how much the pieces 
may vary in widths or thicknesses. 

95, Directions for Cutting Mortise, — Two methods 
of cutting mortises are in common use, (a) boring and 
chiseling, and (b) chiseling alone. First method: (i) 
Fasten the piece in the vise in a horizontal position. (2) 
Bore a series of connecting holes to the required depth. 
Chapter IV, Section 45, with a bit slightly smaller than the 
width of the mortise. (3) The sides of the mortise are 
next pared to the gage and knife lines, beginning at the 
auger holes and working with thin slices toward the lines. 
This method requires care and patience in order to get the 
sides of the mortise cut square to the surface. It is es- 
pecially well adapted to large mortises from which much 
wood is to be removed. 

96. Directions for Cutting Mortise, — Second Meth- 
od: ( I ) Clamp the piece which is to be mortised firmly 
to the bench top, using a hand clamp. Fig. 163 shows a 
little device called a mortise grip. Tighten the vise screw 
and tap the grip with the mallet until it holds the piece 



100 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



solidly. (2) Select a chisel of a width equal to that de- 
sired for the mortise. Stand well back of the mortise at 
one end or the other so as to be able to sight the chisel 
plumb with reference to the sides of the mortise. (3) 
Begin the cutting in the center of the mortise. Make the 





Fig. 163. 



first cut with the bevel of the chisel toward you ; reverse 
the bevel and cut out the wedge-shaped piece, w, Fig. 
164. (4) Continue cutting in this manner until the 
proper depth has been attained, making the opening no 
larger at the surface than is necessary. ( 5 ) Set the chisel 
in a vertical position, bevel towards you, begin at the cen- 
ter and, taking thin slices, cut toward the farther end. 
Drive the chisel the full depth of the mortise each time, 
then ])ull the handle towards you to break the chip from 
the sides of the mortise. Cut to within one-eighth of an 
inch of the end of the mortise. (6) Reverse the piece, or 
your position, and cut in a similar manner to within one- 
eighth of an inch of the second end. (7) With the bevel 
side of the chisel next the end of the mortise pry out the 
chips once or twice as the cutting proceeds. (8) Chisel 



TYPE FORMS. 



101 



the ends to the knife Hnes, carefully sighting the chisel 
for the two directions. Fig. 165 suggests the order. 




Fig. 165. 

97. Miter Joint, — The miter joint is subject to vari- 
ous modifications. In the plain miter, Fig 166, the ends 
or edges abut. They are usually fastened with glue or 
nails or both. The most common form of the plain miter 
is that in which the slope is 
at an angle of forty-five de- 
grees to the edge or side. 





Fro. 166. Fig. 167. 

98, Directions for Miter Joint,— (i) Lay off the 

slopes (see Chapter i, Section 4). (2) Cut and fit the 
parts. To fit and fasten four miter joints, such as are 
found in a picture frame, is no easy task. Special miter 
boxes are made for this purpose which make such work 
comparatively easy. (3) Fig. 167 shows the manner of 
applying the hand clamps to a simple miter joint. When 



102 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




Fig. 168. 



a joint is to be nailed, drive the nail thru one piece 
until its point projects slightly. Place the second piece 
in the vise to hold it firmly. Hold the first 
piece so that its end projects somewhat 
over and beyond that of the second; the 
nailing will tend to bring it to its proper 
position, Fig. i68. If a nail is driven 
thru from the other direction, care must 
be taken to so place it that it will not strike the first, or 
a split join will result. 

99. Dovetail Joint, — Dovetailed joints are so named 
from the shape of the pieces which make the joint. Fig. 
169 shows a thru multiple dovetail commonly used in 
fastening the corners of tool boxes. In hand made dove- 
tails, the tenons are very narrow and the mortises wide, 
while in machine made dovetails,' tenons and mortises are 
of equal width. Mechanics lay out the tenons without 
measurement, depending 
upon the eye unaided to 
give the proper size and 
shape. Sometimes dove- 
tails are laid out to exact 
shape and size, the tenons 
being marked on both 
sides and ends. The mor- 
tises are marked with 
trysquare and bevel after Mortle<N^" 

one side of each has been 

,11. . Fig. 169. 

marked by superimpos- 
ing the tenons. In some kinds of dovetailing, such as 
the half-blind dovetail, the mortises are made first and 




Tertomb 



lYPE FORMS. 



103 



the tenons marked out from them by superposition. 
100, Directions for Dovetail Joint, — (i) Square 
lines around each end to locate the inner ends of the mor- 
tises and tenons. These lines will be at a distance from 
the ends equal to the respective thicknesses of the pieces. 
(2) Determine the number of tenons wanted and square 
center lines across the end of the member which is to have 
the tenons. Place these center lines so that the interven- 
ing spaces shall be equal. (3) Measure along an arris 
and mark on either side of these center lines one-half of 
the desired width of the tenon. In fine hand made dove- 
tails, the usual width for 
the narrow edge of ten- 
on is scarcely more than 
one-sixteenth of an inch 
— the width of a narrow 
saw kerf. (4) Set the 
bevel for the amount of 
flare desired. Fig. 170 
shows measurements 
which may be used in Fig. 170. 

setting the bevel. A flare stick may be made of thin wood 
and used instead of a bevel if desired, Fig. 170. (5) 
Mark the flares on either side of the center lines. Race 
the bevel so that the wide side of the tenon shall be 
formed on the face side of the piece. (6) Carry these 
lines back on each side of the piece as far as the lines 
previously drawn across these sides. (7) With a fine 
tenon saw rip accurately to the lines. Cut the kerfs 
out of the mortises, not out of the tenons. (8) Chis- 
el out the mortises formed between the tenons and 




104 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



trim up any irregularities in the tenons. (9) Set the 
tenons on end on the face side of the second member, with 
the face side just touching the cross line placed on the 





Fig. 171. 



Fig. 172. 



second member, Fig. 171, and mark along the sides of the 
tenons. (10) Square lines across the end to correspond 
with the lines just drawn. (11) Saw accurately to the 
lines, cutting the kerfs out of the mortises, not the tails. 
Chisel out the mortises for the tenons, Fig. 172. (12) 
Fit the parts together. 



CHAPTER IX. 



Elementary Cabinet Work. 

101. Combination Plane. — The most elementary of 
cabinet work necessitates considerable groove cutting, 
rabbeting, etc. Rabbets and grooves can be formed by 
means of the chisel, the sides first being gaged. A better 
way, by far, is to plane them. In earlier practice, joiners 
were obliged to have a great variety of special planes — 
one for each kind of work, and frecjuently different planes 




Fig. 173. 

for different sizes of the same kind of work. There were 
rabbeting, dado, plow, filletster, beading, matching planes, 
etc., etc. 

Fig. 173 illustrates a modern combination plane which, 
by an exchange of cutters, can be made to do the work of 
a (i) header, center header, (2) rabbet and filletster, (3) 
dado, (4) plow, (5) matching plane, and (6) slitting 
plane, different sized cutters for each kind of work per- 



106 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



mitting of a great variety of uses. By means of a guide or 
fence, the plane can be set to cut to a required distance 
from the edge of the board. A stop or depth gage can be 
set so as to keep the plane from cutting any deeper than 
is desired. \Mien cutting across the grain, as in cutting 
dadoes, adjustable cutting spurs precede and score or cut 
the fibers of the wood on either side of the cutter. 

102, Drawer Construction, — 11ie front of a drawer 
is usually made of thicker stock than the other parts. Fig. 
174. For example, if the front were to be made of three- 
quarter inch stock the sides, back and bottom would prob- 




FiG. 174. Fig. 175. 

ably be made of three-eighths inch material. Drawer 
fronts are always made of the same material as the rest 
of the cabinet or desk while the sides, back and bottom 
are usually made of some soft wood such as yellow poplar. 

Fig. 1 75 A illustrates a very common method of fasten- 
ing the drawer sides to the front. This form is used 
mainly u])on cheap or rough construction. It is com- 
monly known as a rabbeted joint. The half-blind dove- 
tail, Fig. 175 B, is a better fastening, by far, and is used 
almost exclusively on fine drawer construction. 

103. Directions for Rabbeted Corner,— The rabbeted 
joint, Fig. 175 A, sometimes called a rebate or ledge joint 



ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 107 

is made as follows : ( i ) Line across the face side of the 
drawer front at a distance from the end equal to the 
thickness of the drawer sides; also, across the edges to 
the approximate depth of rabbet. (2) Set the gage and 
gage on ends and edges as far as the lines just placed, for 
the depth of rabbet. (3) Cut the sides of rabbet, paring 
across the grain as in cutting the dado. Fasten by nail- 
ing thru the drawer sides into the front, not thru the 
front into the sides. 

104. Directions for Dovetail Corner,— The front of 
the drawer should be laid out and cut first. ( i ) Gage on 
the end the distance the drawer side is to lap over the 
front. (2) Without changing the setting of the gage, 
hold the head of the gage against the end of the drawer 
side and gage on both broad surfaces. Ordinarily, one 
should not gage across the grain of the wood nor should 
the head of the gage be held against other than a face. 
A little thought will show why exception has been made 
in this case. (3) Square a line across the face side — the 
inside surface — of the drawer front at a distance from 
the end equal to the thickness of the drawer side. This 
line gives the depth of mortise for the tails. (4) The 
groove for the drawer bottom having been cut, or its posi- 
tion marked on the end of the front, lay out on the end 
the half tenons at both edges so that the groove shall 
come wholly within a tail mortise. The amount of flare at 
which to set the bevel is given in Chapter VIII, Section 
100. (5) Determine the number of tenons wanted and 
divide the space between the flares just drawn into the 
required number of equal parts and draw center lines for 



108 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



the tenons, Fig. 176. (6) With the bevel lay off to either 
side of these center lines the sides of the tenons. (7) 
Carry these lines down the face side to meet the line pre- 




FiG. 176. Fig. 177. 

^•jously drawn to indicate mortise depth. (8) Saw ex- 
actly to the knife lines, cutting. Fig. 177, the kerfs out of 
the mortises, not the tenons. (9) Chisel out the mortises. 
Fig. 178. 

The corresponding mortises and tails may now be laid 
out on the drawer side and w^orked. (10) By super- 
position, Fig. 179, mark out the shape of the mortises to 




Fig. 178. 




Fig. 179. 



be cut in the sides. { 1 1 ) Saw and chisel these mortises. 
Fig. 172. 

105, Directions for Drawer.— ( i ) Square the dififer- 
ent members to size. (2) Groove the front and sides of 
the drawer to receive the drawer bottom. These o-rooves 
should be made somewhat narrower than the bottom is 



ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 



109 



thick to insure a good fit. The under side of the bottom, 
later, may be gaged and beveled on the two ends and tlie 
front edge, Fig. i8o. (3) Lay out and cut in the drawer 
sides the dadoes into which the ends of the back are to 
be fitted, Fig. 181. (4) Lay out and cut the joints on 
the front of the drawer. ( 5 ) Get the bottom, ready ; that 
is, plane the bevels on the under side as suggested in 2, 
above. (6) Assemble the members dry to see that all fit 
properly. (7) Take apart; glue the joints by which the 
sides are fastened to the front and the joints by which 





Fig. 180. Fig. 181. 

the back is fastened to the sides. Glue tbe bottom to tlie 
front of the drawer but not to the sides or back. 

Sometimes on large or rough work nails are used in- 
stead of glue to fasten the members together. In this 
case the front, sides and back are put together, the back 
being kept just above the grooves in the sides. The bot- 
tim is then slipped in place under the back. It is fastened 
to the front of the drawer only. Especial care should 
be taken in squaring the bottom for the squareness of 
the drawer is dependent upon this. 

106. Paneling. — Often it is desired to fill in a rather 
wide space with wood. To offset the effects of shrinkage, 



iio 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




Fig. 182. 



winding and warpage, a panel rather than a single solid 
piece is used. By increasing the number of panels a 
space of any size may be filled. Fig. 182. 

107, Cutting Grooves, — Grooves for panels are best 
cut by means of the panel plow or 
combination plane. It it not neces- 
sary to gage for the sides of the 
[groove ; the adjustments of the plane 
are such as to give the proper depth 
and location, when once set, and a 
cutter of the width equal to that of 
the desired groove inserted. The 
fence of the plane must be held 
against one or the other of the faces. 

Fig- 173- 

108, Haunched Mortise - and - Tenon, — A groove 

must be plowed the full length of a piece to work it 
to advantage. Where a mortise-and-tenon joint is to be 
made in which the grooved surface is to become a part, 
the tenon must be so cut as to allow its filling the groove. 
The mortise should be cut before the 
groove is plowed. The tenon, after be- 
ing worked the full width, is gaged 
from the face edge to a width equal to 
the length of the mortise and worked 
to that size. Fig. 183. 

Especial care must be taken in gluing up the frame that 
no glue shall get into the grooves or on the edges of the 
panel. 

109, Rabbeting,— Fig. 184 shows a corner of a frame 
rabbeted to receive a glass. Rabbets are best worked 




ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 



Ill 




Fig. 184. 




Fig. 185. 



with either a rabbet plane or the combination plane. In 
rabbeting- across the grain the spur must be set parallel 
with the edges of the cutter. 

Since the parts of the frame are rabbeted the full length 
for convenience, a special joint is 
necessary at the corners. The mor- 
tises are cut be- 
fore the rabbets 
are worked. The 
tenons are laid 
out so that the 
shoulder on one 
side shall extend 
as far beyond the shoulder on the opposite side as the 
rabbet is deep. Fig. 185. 

Where rabbeting must be worked with a chisel alone, 
Fig. 186 illustrates the manner of loosening up the wood 
preparatory to removing it, 
when the rabbet extends along 
the grain of the wood. 

To place glass panels in rab- 
bets, first place 
a slight cushion 
of putty in the 
rabbet that the 
glass may rest 
against it. A 
light cushion between the glass and the fillet will serve to 
keep the glass from breaking and will keep it from 
rattling. Fig. 187. 




Fig. 186. 




Fig. 187. 



112 



liSSENTJ.lLS 01' WOODWORKING. 



lii 









Tioil 



l^c 



cSO« 



110, Fitting a Door, — A door is a frame with a panel 
or a combination of jianels. The names of the parts of a 
door and their relative positions are indicated in Fig. i88. 

( I ) Mark with a trysquare and 
saw off tlie higs, the parts of the 
stiles which project beyond the rails. 
(2) Plane an edge of the door nntil 
it fits a side of the frame against 
which it is to be hung. If the frame 
is straight, this edge may be ]>laned 
straight. It is not wise to take for 
granted the squareness or sraight- 
ness of a frame. A test or series of 
tests may first be made with square 
and straight-edge. A mechanic, 
'^liowevei', usually planes an edge 
until it fits the frame, testing by hold- 
ing- the door against the frame as near to its position as 
its size will allow. (3) ) Plane the bottom or top edge 
of the door until it fits the frame properly when the first 
planed edge is in position. (4) Meastu-c the width of 
the frame at its top and bottom, 
Fig. 189, and transfer these di- 
mensions to the top and bottom 
of the door, connecting them 
with a straight edge. When ap- 
proaching the line, in planing, I^c. 189. 
place the door against the frame often enough to see 
where the allowances must be made for irregularities in 
the frame. (5) The length of the frame may next be 



Fjg. 188. 




ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 



113 



measured on each side and these dimensions transferred 
to the door. Connect them with a straight edge and plane 
and fit as was directed in the third step. 

A door to work well must not be fitted perfectly tight ; 
it must have a Httle ''play," the amount depending upon 
the size of the door. 

The edge of the door which is to swing free is usually 
planed slightly lower at the back arris than at the front. 
An examination of the movement of an ordinary house 
door will show the reason for this. 

111. Hinging a Door. — The hinges most commonly 
used in cabinet making and carpentry are the kind known 

as butts. Where the door stands 
in a vertical position, hinges in 
, w^hich the two parts are joined by 
a loose pin are generally used. 
By removing the pins the door 
may be removed without taking 
the screws out of the hinge. Such 
hinges are more easily applied 
than those with the fixed \m\. 
Fig. foo. ( i ) Place the door in position ; 

keep it tight against the top and the hinge side of the 
frame. (2) Measure from top and bottom of the door 
to locate the position for the top of the higher hinge and 
the bottom of the lower hinge. Usually, the lower hinge 
is placed somewhat farther froui the bottom than the 
higher hinge is from the top. (3) With the knife or chisel 
mark on both door and frame at the points just located, 
Fig. 190. (4) Take out the door, place the hinge as in 
Fig. 191, and mark along the ends with a knife. In a 




114 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

similar manner mark the frame. Make certain that the 
openings on door and on frame are laid off so as to cor- 
respond before proceeding further. (6) Set the gage for 
the depth the hinge is to be sunk and gage both door and 
frame. (7) Set another gage for width of openings and 
gage both door and frame, keeping the head of the gage 
against the front of the door. (8) Chisel out these gains 
on door and frame. (9) If loose-pin butts are used, sepa- 
rate the parts and fasten them in place. 
Use a brad awl to make openings for 
the screws. To insure the hinges' pull- 
ing tight against the side of the gain 
make the holes just a little nearer the 
back side of the screw hole of the hinge. 
Put the door in place and insert the 

"Pjp 1Q1 . . 

pms. It is a good machanic who can 
make a door hang properly the first time it is put up. 
It is better, therefore, to insert but one or two screws 
in each part of a hinge until the door has been tried. 
(10) If the door hangs away from the frame on the 
hinge side, take it off; take off hinge on door or frame, 
or both if the crack is large; chisel the gain deeper at 
its front. By chiseling at the front only and feathering 
the cut towards the back, the gain needs to be cut but 
about one-half as deep as if the whole hinge were sunk. 
If the door should fail to shut because the hinge edge 
strikes the frame too soon, the screws of the offending 
hinge must be loosened and a piece of heavy paper or 
cardboard inserted along the entire edge of the gain. 
Fasten the screws and cut off the surplus paper with a 




ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 



115 




Fig. 192. 



knife. If plain butt hinges are used the operations are 
similar to those just described except that the whole 
hinge must be fastened to the door and the door held in 
place while fastening the hinges to the frame. 

112. Locks, — Locks which are fastened upon the sur- 
face of a door are called rim locks. Those which are set 

into mortises cut in the edge 
of the door are called mor- 
tise locks. Locks are placed 
somewhat above the middle 
of the door for convenience 
as well as appearance. Three 
styles of cabinet locks such 
as are used on drawers and 
small boxes are shown in Fig. 192. 

The manner of applying^ a cabinet lock will be suggested 
by the lock itself. On surface locks, ( i ) the lock is held 
against the inside of the door or drawer and the position 
of the keyhole is marked. (2) This hole is bored. (3) 
The lock is screwed in place, and (4) the escutcheon fast- 
ened to the outer or front surface. If a face plate is used, 
the door is closed, the position marked, after which the 
door is opened and the plate is set. The face plate is mor- 
tised into the frame so that its outer surface shall be 
slightly lower than that of the wood. With a lock such as 
the box lock. Fig. 192, sufficient wood must be removed 
from the mortise so that the bolt may act properly before 
the plate is screwed fast. 



PART THREE. 



WOOD AND WOOD FINISHING. 



Chapter X. 
Wood. 

113. Structure, — For convenience, tree structure is 
usually studied (i) in transverse or cross section, (2) 
radially, (3) tangentially. 

A transverse section is obtained by cutting a log at 
right angles to its length ; a radial sec- 
tion by cutting it along the radius; a 
tangential section by making a cut at 
right angles to a radius. Fig. 193. 

If we should cut transversely a young 
tree, a sprout, or branch of an oak or 
similar tree, we should find it composed 



V Vessel^ or porer^. 

T5.-TAageo1iA-l ^ecX\on 
C5 -Tr6~n.s Ye r6e " 
■R..5 "Resell ^1 " " 

Fig. 193. 





B^rk 



Fig. 194. 



of three layers of tissue (i) pith or medulla, (2) wood, 
(3) bark. Fig. 194. These tissues, if magnified, would be 
found composed of little closed tubes or cells. Fig. 195. 
Examine the end of a log cut from a tree such as the 



ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 



117 



oak; we shall find that the center, which in the young 
tree was soft, has become hard and dry, and that upon it 
are marked a series of concentric rings — rings having a 
common center. These rings are known as annual rings 
because one is added each year. 

Usually, about three-quarters of the rings from the 
center outward will be found to have a different color 
from the remaining ones. These inner rings form what 
is called heartwood. The wood of the remaining rings 
will be found softer and to contain a larger proportion of 
sap. This part is called sapwood. Young 
trees are composed mainly of sapwood. 




Cortex 



Ba-sf 



As the tree grows older more of it is 



^dvj:?woo<f. 



He<ivrfv»'oocl. 




changed to heartwood, the heartwood becoming greater 
in proportion to the sapwood with age. 

Upon examining these rings each will be found to be 
made up of two layers; one a light, soft, open, rapid 
growth formed in the spring, the other, a dark, hard, 
close, slow growth formed in the summer. 

Frequently, the center of the annual rings is not in the 
center of the log. Fig. 196. This is due to the action of 
the sun in attracting more nourishment to one side than 
to the other. 



118 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

Surrounding the sapwood is the bark. The inner part 
of the bark is called bast and is of a stringy or fibrous 
nature. Bark is largely dead matter formed from bast, 
Fig. 195. Its function is to protect the living tissues. 

Between the bast and the last ring of the woody tissue 
is a thin layer called the cambium. This layer is the liv- 
ing and growing part of the tree. Its cells multiply by 
division and form new wood cells on the inside and new 
bast cells on the outside. 

Heartwood is dead so far as any change in its cells is 

concerned. Its purpose is merely 
to stiffen and support the weight 
of the tree, 

Sapwood, on the other hand, 
W^¥^-^'C^^^^^^^^s=r has many active cells which assist 

in the life processes of the tree, 
^*^" tho only in the outer layer of cells, 

the cambium, does the actual growing or increasing pro- 
cess take place. 

Again examining the end of the log, we shall find 
bright lines radiating from the center. They are com- 
posed of the same substance as the pith or medulla and 
are called pith or medullary rays. These rays are pres- 
ent in all trees which grow by adding ring upon ring but 
in some they are hardly visible. The purpose of these 
horizontal cells is to bind the vertical cells together and 
to assist in distributing and storing up plant food. 

Fig. 197 shows a log cut longitudinally or lengthwise. 
The lines we call grain, it will be seen, are the edges of 
the annual rings, the light streaks being an edge view of 




ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 119 

the spring layer and the dark streaks an edge view of the 
summer or autumn wood. 

Knots are formed by the massing or knotting of the 
fibers of the tree through the growth of a branch. Fig. 
1^8 shows the manner in which the fibers are turned. 
This packing of the fibers is what causes a knot to be so 
much harder than the rest of the wood. 

114, Growth.— Sap is the life blood of the tree. In the 
winter when most of the trees are bare of leaves there 
is but very little circulation of the sap. Xhe coming of 
spring with its increase of heat and light, causes the tree 
to begin to take on new life ; that is, the sap 
begins to circulate. This movement of sap 
causes the roots to absorb from the soil cer- 
tain elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen and carbon, also mineral salts in 
solution. The liquid thus absorbed works 
its way upward, mainly by way of the sap- 
wood and medullary cells. Upon reaching 
the cambium layer, the nourishment which it provides 
causes the cells to expand, divide and generate new cells. 
It also causes the buds to take the form of leaves. 

When the sap reaches the leaves a chemical change 
takes place. This change takes place only in the presence 
of heat and light, and is caused by the action of a sub- 
stance called chlorophyll. The importance of the work 
performed by chlorophyll cannot be overestimated. Near- 
ly all plant life depends upon it to change mineral sub- 
stance into food. Animals find food in plant life because 
of this change. 

Assimilation is the process of taking up and breaking 




120 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

up, by the leaves, of carbonic acid gas with which the 
cells containing chlorophyll come in contact. Carbon, 
one of the elements, is retained, but oxygen, the other 
element, is returned to the air. Carbon is combined with 
the oxygen and hydrogen of the water, which came up 
from the roots, to form new chemical compounds. Nitro- 
gen and earthy parts, w^hich came with the water, are also 
present. 

Chlorophyll gives to leaves and young bark their green 
color. 

The roots of the trees are constantly drinking plant 
food in the daytime of spring and early summer. From 
midsummer until the end of summer the amount of mois- 
ture taken in is very small so that the flow of sap almost 
ceases. 

The leaves, however, are full of sap which, not being 
further thinned by the upward flow% becomes thickened 
thru the addition of carbonic acid gas and the loss of 
oxygen. 

Toward the end of summer this thickened sap sinks 
to the under side of the leaf and gradually flows out of 
the leaf and down thru the bast of the branch and 
trunk, where another process of digestion takes place. 
One part of this descending sap which has been partly 
digested in the leaves and partly in the living tissues of 
root, trunk and branch, spreads over the wood formed in 
the spring and forms the summer wood. The second 
part is changed to bark. What is not used at once is 
stored until needed. 

The leaves upon losing their sap change color, wither 
and drop oft*. By the end of autumn the downward flow 



ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 121 

of changed sap from the leaves is completed and the tree 
has prepared itself for the coming winter. 

It must be remembered that the foregoing changes are 
made gradually. After the first movement of the sap in 
the early spring has nourished the buds into leaves of a 
size sufficient to perform work, there begins a downward 
movement of food materials — slight at first, to be sure, 
but ever increasing in volume until the leaves are doing 
full duty. We may say, therefore, that the upward move- 
ment of the sap thru the sapwood and the downward flow 
of food materials thru the bast takes place at the same 
time, their changes being of relative volumes rather than 
oi time. 

115. Respiration and Transpiration. — Plants, like 
animals, breathe ; like animals they breathe in oxygen and 
breath out carbonic acid gas. Respiration which is but 
another name for breathing, goes on day and night, but 
is far less active than assimilation, which takes place only 
during the day. Consequently more carbonic acid gas is 
taken in than is given out except at night when, to a slight 
extent, the reverse takes place, small quantities of car- 
bonic acid gas being given off and oxygen taken in. 

Very small openings in the bark called lenticles, furnish 
breathing places. Oxygen is also taken in thru the 
leaves. 

Transpiration is the evaporation of water from all parts 
of the tree above ground, principally from the leaves. 

The amount of water absorbed by the roots is greatly 
in excess of what is needed. That fresh supplies of 
earthy matter may reach the leaves, the excess of water 
must be got rid of. In trees with very thick bark, tran- 



122 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



spiration takes place thru the lenticles in the bottom of 
the deep cracks. 

116. Moisture. — Water is present in all wood. It 
may be found (i) in the cavities of the lifeless cells, 
fibers and vessels ; (2) in the cell walls ; and (3) in the 
living cells of which it forms over ninety per cent. Sap- 
w^ood contains more water than heartwood. 

Water-filled wood lacks the strength of wood from 
which the greater part of the moisture has been expelled 
by evaporation. 

117. Shrinkage, -Water in the cell walls — it makes no 
difference whether the cells are filled or empty— causes 




B 

Fig. 199. Fig. 200. 

their enlargement and consequently an increase in the 
volume of the block or plank. The removal of this water 
by evaporation causes the walls to shrink; the plank 
becomes smaller and lighter. Thick walled cells shrink 
more than thin ones and summer wood more than spring 
wood. Cell walls do not shrink lengthwise and since the 
length of a cell is often a hundred or more times as great 
as its diameter the small shrinkage in the thickness of the 
cell walls at A and B, in Fig. 199, is not sufficient to make 
any noticeable change in the length of the timber. 

Since the cells of the pith or medullary rays extend at 



ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 123 

right angles to the main body, Fig. 200, their smaller 
shrinkage along the radius of the log opposes the shrink- 
age of the longitudinal fibers. This is one reason why a 
log shrinks more circumf erentially, that is along the rings, 
than it does radially or along the radii. A second cause 
lies in the fact that greatly shrinking bands of summer 
wood are interrupted, along the radii, by as many bands 
of slower shrinking spring wood, while they are continu- 
ous along the rings. 

This tendency of the log to shrink tangentially or along 

the radii leads to permanent 
checks. Fig. 201 A. It causes 
logs sawed into boards to take 
forms as shown in Fig. 201 B. 

Warping is caused by uneven 
shrinkage. Sapwood, as a rule, 
shrinks more than heartwood of 

the same weight. The wood of 

Fig. 201. • ^ u • 1 

pnie, spruce, cypress, etc., shrmks 

less than the wood of trees such as the oak. 

118, Weight, — Wood substance is 1.6 times as heavy 
as water ; it matters not whether it be wood of oak, pine 
or poplar. Wood placed in water floats because of the 
air enclosed in its cells ; when the cells become filled with 
water it sinks. 

The weight of any given piece of wood is determined 
( i) by the wood substance — this is always the same; (2) 
by the amount of water enclosed in its cells — this varies. 

Some kinds of woods are heavier than others similarly 
seasoned because they contain more wood substance in a 
given volume. 




124 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Weight of wood is an important quality. To a large 
extent, strength is measured by weight; a heavy piece of 
oak will be stronger than a light one of the same species. 

Lightness, strength and stiffness are properties which 
recommend wood for different uses. 

119, Other Properties, — Strength, elasticity, hard- 
ness, toughness and cleavability as applied to timber, 
have their usual meaning. 

120, Grain,-Wood fibers generally extend parallel 





Fig. 202. 



Fig. 203. 



to the axis of the trunk or branch which they form. In 
this case the wood is said to be straight grained. 

Frequently, the fibers grow around the tree as in Fig. 
202, or several layers may grow obliquely in one direction 
and the next series grow obliquely in the opposite direc- 
tion, Fig. 203. Boards cut from such trees will be cross 
grained or twisted. 

The surface of the wood under the bark is seldom 
smooth. Usually these hollows are filled even by the 
addition of one or two new rings of growth. However, in 
some woods as maple, the unevennesses are maintained. 



ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 125 

the high places being added to as are the low. Fig. 204. 
A board cut tangentially from the tree in which the 
depressions are small and numerous will have *^birds' 




Fig. 204. 



eyes". Dormant buds frequently cause small cone-shaped 
elevations, which tho covered with successive layers of 
new wood, retain their shape. Cross sections of these 
cones will appear on the sawed board as irregular circles 
with a dark speck in the center. 



10 




Fig. 205. 
felling red spruce with the saw. 
mountains^ new york. 



ADIRONDACK 



CHAPTER XL 



Lumbering and Milling. 



121, Lumbering, — Lumbering is of two kinds : con- 
servative and ordinary. The first seeks to so treat the 
forest that successive crops may be produced ; the second 
takes no account of the future. . It cuts only the better 
parts of the trees, often destroying young and promising 
trees in so doing. 

Lumbering in the United States in usually carried on 
at quite a distance from habitation, A camp is, therefore, 
prepared at a spot convenient for the logging operators. 
Here the men eat and sleep. 



LUMBERING AND MILLING. 



127 



A lumberman selects the trees which are to be cut and 
marks them with a hatchet to prevent mistakes. 

These trees are felled either with the ax or saw, some- 




FiG. 206. 

HAULING SPRUCE LOGS TO THE SKIDWAY. 
MOUNTAINS,, NEW YORK. 



ADIRONDACK 



times both. Fig. 205. When the trees are down, the 
lower branches and top are trimmed off with axes, after 
which the trunks are sawed into logs of convenient length. 
These logs are dragged away and collected in piles. 
This is called skidding, Fig. 206. Skidding is usually done 
with horses or oxen. From these piles the logs are loaded 
upon sleds, Fig. 207, and hauled to the place from which 
they are loaded on cars, rolled into a stream or otherwise 
transferred to the sawmill. Fig. 208 illustrates a method 
used in the south which combines skidding and hauling. 
. Logs are transported to the sawmill in various ways: 
They may be loaded on cars, and hauled to the millpond, 
Figs. 209 and 210. They may be floated down some 



128 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




Fig. 207. 
load of white pine logs, hubbard co., minnesota. 




Fig. 208. 
hauling logs by mule team near ocilla, georgia. 



LUMBERING AND MILLING. 



129 



Stream. Where a stream is not deep they are often col- 
lected in the bed just below a specially prepared dam 
called a splash-dam. When the dam is opened the sudden 
flood carries them along. Logs are often made into rafts 
where the stream is large and deep or they may be floated 




Fig. 209. 
loaded train of longleaf pine, barham, louisiana. 

singly. Men called log or river drivers accompany these 
logs. It is their duty to break up any jams which the 
logs may form. River-driving is dangerous work and 
requires great daring on the part of the men. They must 
learn to balance themselves on floating, rolling logs. 

When a log jam is broken the logs go out with a great 
rush and the driver must make his escape as best he can. 

122. Milling. — If the sawmill is located upon the banks 
of a running stream the logs are enclosed by a log boom 
until they are wanted for sawing. Fig. 211. Log booms 
are made by chaining logs together and stretching them 
across the river ; they are to the enclosed logs what fences 
are to cattle. 



130 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



Soaking logs in water helps to clean the wood. The 
mineral matter which is soluble is washed out. Fig. 212. 

Three kinds of saws are in common use in cutting logs 
into lumber : circular, band and gang. Circular saws cut 
faster than band-saws but are rather wasteful because 




Fig. 210. 
unloading logs from train^ pinogrande, california. 

they cut such a wide kerf. A large circular saw 
frequently cuts a kerf one-quarter of an inch wide. Gang 
saws cut out several boards at the same time. Band-saws, 
because of their economy, are displacing the others. 

The common forms into which logs are sawed are 
timbers, planks and boards. Timbers refer to the larger 
pieces such as are used for framing; planks are wide 
pieces over one and one-half inches thick; and boards are 
wide pieces less than one and one-half inches thick. 

At the mill the log is drawn from the water, up a slide, 
Fig. 213. by an endless chain. In the mill it is inspected 
for stones and spikes and then measured. Next it is 



LUMBERING AND MILLING. 



131 




Fig. 211. 

the glens falls boom, hudson river^ new york. 




Fig. 212. 
log pond near ocilla, georgia. 



132 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



automatically pushed out of the slip upon a sloping plat- 
form called the log- deck where it is held by a stop until it 
is wanted at the saw. 







-W^Brj 1 


^^^^ 


-'.Zi:^ .^i****" 


^-^ 




K 

\ 


*^^^' 


1 



Fig. 214. 
double cut saw mill, pinogrande, california. 

When the carriage is empty the stop is withdrawn and 
at the same time revolves so as to throw the log upon the 
carriage. Iron hooks called dogs are then fastened in the 
log in such a way that it cannot turn. Fig. 214. The car- 
riage and log move toward the saw^ and a slab is cut off 
the log. A reversing lever takes the carriage back ; again 
the log is moved to the saw. This is repeated until a 
few boards are cut off. The more modern band saws 
have teeth on each edge of the blade so that the log is cut 
as the carriage moves backward as well as w^hen it moves 
forward. 



LUMBERING AND MILLING. 



133 




Fig. 213. 
log slide at a mill in southern georgia. 



134 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

The dogs are released and the log is given a half turn 
on the carriage by means of a steam ''canter." The side 
from which the slab and boards were sawed is placed 
against the knees — the standards or uprights of the car- 
riage — and the log again dogged. The opposite slab and 
a few more boards are sawed off after which the log is 
given a quarter turn and all but a few boards taken off. 

A half turn of the log and the final sawings are made. 

A series of ''live" rolls — rolls which revolve in one di- 
rection — carry off the boards. The rough edged boards, 
which constitute about one-third of the whole number, 
are held by stops and finished on saws called edgers. 

The boards are now passed on to a trimmer or jump 
saw and cut to standard lengths. Timbers are trimmed to 
length by a butting saw. Slabs are sawed to a length of 
four feet one inch on a slasher. These slabs are sawed 
into laths, pickets, or blocks the length of a shingle, called 
shingle bolts. From these bolts shingles are sawed. 

123. Quarter Sawing, — Fig. 215 shows a common 
way of sawing "quarter sawed" lumber. 

The faces of most of the boards are cut nearly parallel 
to the medullary rays, these rays come 
to the surface at small angles and make 
the beautiful spotting often seen in oak 
and sycamore. Quarter-sawed boards 
do not warp or twist as much as the 
plain sawed because the annual rings are 
Fig. 215. perpendicular to the face. 

124, Waste. — Attached to every sawmill will be found 
tower like structures from the tops of which smoke issues, 
Fig. 216. These are called burners and into them are 




LUMBERING AND MILLING-. 



135 



thrown thousands of tons of waste wood. Waste wood 
is used as fuel for the engines and for many other pur- 
poses but there still remains much that is burned as the 
cheapest way to get rid of it. 




Fig. 216. 

A MODERN SAWMILL, SHOWING REFUSE BURNER. 

125. Lumber Transportation, —Sawed lumber is 
transported to the yards in various ways. It is loaded 
and carried by boats, by cars, and in some places is floated 
to its destination in narrow wooden troughs called flumes. 

On the Pacific coast mills are frequently built out over 
the water on piles so that the lumber is loaded directly 
from the saws. Frequently lumber is formed into rafts 
and towed to its destination in a manner similar to that of 
the log rafts of the Pacific. 

126, Seasoning, — There are two methods of drying 
wood, in common use : air drying and kiln-drying. 



136 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



When lumber reaches its destination it is sorted and 
graded according to lumbermen's standards, after which, 
it is loaded upon trucks and hauled to the storage yards. 
Here, it is so placed that air can get at the four sides 
of each piece and evaporate the water held by the ''green" 
lumber. This is called air seasoning. The time necessary 
to season a piece of lumber so that it may be used for 

high-grade work de- 
pends upon the kind 
of wood, its shape and 
size, the condition of 
the atmosphere, etc. 

Two, three, and 
even four years are 
often required; the 
longer the better, pro- 
vided it is kept dry. 
It will never become 
Fig. 217. perfectly dry because 

KILN DRriNG TUPELO, IONIA,, MICHIGAN. q£ ^J^g mOlstUrC iu tllC 

air itself. Because of the slowness of this method of 
seasoning, millmen resort to artificial means. The lum- 
ber, as it is needed, is shut up in a room heated by steam. 
Fig. 217 shows the method of ''sticking" lumber in pre- 
paring it for the kiln. 

High temperature, no matter how much moisture may 
be contained in the air, will evaporate water from wood. 

Green, or fresh sap-wood may be partially seasoned by 
boiling it in hot water or by steaming it. 

Pine, spruce, cypress, cedar, etc., may be placed in the 
kiln as soon as sawed, four days for one inch thick boards 




LUMBERING AND MILLING. 137 

being sufficient to dry them. Hard woods, such as oak, 
maple, birch, etc., are usually allowed to ''air season" for 
a period of from three to six months before being placed 
in the kiln. Six to ten days additional kiln drying is 
allowed them. 

The usual temperature for kilns is from 158 to 180 
degrees Fahr. Hardwoods lose moisture so slowly that 
to place them in the kiln directly from the saw would 
cause them to shrink very unevenly and hence make them 
subject to serious ''checks". 

Lumber is frequently steamed to prevent its checking 
and "case hardening" while being kiln dryed. 

127, Lumber Terms and Measurements, — "Clear" 
lumber is lumber which is free from knots and sapwood. 

"Dressed" lumber or "surfaced" or "sized" lumber 
is lumber which has passed thru the planer. 

The unit of measure is the board- foot which is one inch 
thick and twelve inches square. Boards less than one 
inch thick are sold by the square foot, face measure. 

Shingles and lath are sold by the bundle. AToldings 
are sold by "running" or lineal measure. 

Prices are usually based upon the thousand feet ; thus, 
200 feet, I St, clear, S2S, (sized or surfaced on two sides) 
at $47 per M. 



CHAPTER XII. 
Common Woods. 

128, Classification, — According to botanical class- 
ification, woods belong to the Flowering Plants (Phan- 
eroganiia). Classified further we have : 

(i) Naked seeds (gymnosperms) 

1. Palm ferns, etc. (cycadacese) 

2. Joint firs (gnetacese) 

3. Pines, firs, etc. (conifers) 

(2) Fruits (angiosperms) 

1. One-seed-leaf (monocotyledons) 
(Bamboos, palms, grasses, etc.) 

2. Two-seed-leaf (dicotyledon) 
a. Herbs. 

h. Broad-leafed trees, 
(oak, ash, elm, etc.) 

Conifers and broad-leaved trees are alike in that they 
add a new layer of wood each year which covers the old 
wood of root, trunk and branch. They are known as 
exogens — outward growers. 

In woods such as the palms, bamboos, and yuccas, 
growth is made from within. 

The new wood strands mingle with the old and cause 
the cross sections to appear dotted, Fig. 218. Trees of 




COMMON WOODS. 139 

this class — endogens — after some years of growth form 
harder wood near the surface with younger and softer 
growth toward the center — quite the 
reverse of the exogens. There are no 
annual rings. Growth takes place main- 
ly at the top. 

Other classifications, such as decidu- 
ous, "hard woods," "evergreens," 
"soft woods," are in common use but 

Kir 218 

are not very accurate. 

Deciduous trees are the broad-leaved trees and ^ri so 
called because they lose their leaves in the fall. Broad- 
leaved trees are also called hard woods. 

Conifers are called evergreens because their needle- 
shaped leaves remain green on the tree the year around. 
They are also known as soft woods. 

Most of our timber is furnished by (i) the needle- 
leaved conifers and (2) the broad-leaved trees. 

Coniferous Woods. ^ 

129. Cedar.— Fig. 219. Light, soft, stiff, not strong, of fine 

texture; sap and heartwood distinct, the 

former lighter, the latter a dull grayish 

brown, or red. The wood seasons rapidly, 

shrinks and checks but little, and is very 

durable. Used like soft pine, but owing to 

its great durability preferred for shingles, 

etc. Small sizes used for posts, ties, etc. 

(Since almost all kinds of wood are used 

V oirt for fuel and charcoal, and in the construc- 

FiG. 219. . , . , ' , 

tion 01 fences, barns, etc., the enumeration 

of these uses has been omitted in this list.) Cedars usually oc- 

^ The descriptive matter in small type is quoted, by permission, from a report of the 
Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 




140 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



cur scattered, but they form, in certain localities, forests of con- 
siderable extent. 

130. Cypress. — Fig. 220. Cypress wood in appearance, quality, 
and uses is similar to white cedar, "Black cypress" and "white 
cypress" are heavy and light forms of the same species. The 




Fig. 220. 




Fir 221. 



cypress is a large deciduous tree occupying- much of the swamp 
and overflow land along the coast and rivers of the Southern 
States. 

131. Pine. — Fig. 221. Very variable, very light and soft in 
"soft" pine, such as white pine ; of medium weight to heavy and 
quite hard in "hard" pine, of which longleaf or Georgia pine is 
the extreme form. Usually it is stiff, quite strong, of even tex- 
ture and more or less resinous. The sapwood is yellowish white ; 
the heartwood, orange brown. Pine shrinks moderately, seasons 
rapidly and without much injury; it works easily; is never too 
hard to nail (unlike oak or hickory) ; it is mostly quite durable, 
and if well seasoned is not subject to the attacks of boring in- 
sects. The heavier the wood, the darker, stronger and harder it 
is, and the more it shrinks and checks. Pine is used more exten- 
sively than any other kind of wood. It is the principal wood in 
common carpentry, as well as in all heavy construction, bridges, 
trestles, etc. It is used also in almost every other wood industry, 
for spars, masts, planks, and timbers in ship building, in car and 



COMMON WOODS. 



141 



wagon construction, in cooperage, for crates and boxes, in fur- 
niture work, for toys and patterns, railway ties, water pipes, ex- 
celsior, etc. Pines are usually large trees with few branches, the 
straight, cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the greatest part 
of the tree. 

132. Spruce. — Fig. 222. Resembles soft pine, is light, very 
soft, stiff, moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has no 
distinct heartwood, and is of whitish color. Used like soft pine, 
but also employed as resonance wood and preferred for paper 




Fig. 222. 




Fig. 223 



pulp. Spruces, like pines, form extensive forests ; they are more 
frugal, thrive on thinner soils, and bear more shade, but usually 
require a more humid climate. "Black" and "white" spruce 
as applied by lumbermen, usually refer to narrow and wide 
ringed forms of black spruce. 

Broad-Leaved Woods. 

133. Ash. —Fig. 223. Wlood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, quite 
tough, not durable in contact with soil, straight grained, rough 
on the split surface and coarse in texture. The wood shrinks 
moderately, seasons with little injury, stands well and takes a 
good polish. In carpentry ash is used for finishing lumber, 
stairways, panels, etc. ; it is used in shipbuilding, in the construc- 

11 



142 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



tion of cars, wagons, carriages, etc., in the manufacture of farm 
implements, machinery, and especially of furniture of all kinds, 
and also for harness work; for barrels, baskets, oars, tool 
handles, hoops, clothespins, and toys. The trees of the several 
species of ash are rapid growers, of small to medium height 
with stout trunks; they form no forests, but occur scattered in 
almost all broad-leaved forests. 

134. Basswood.— Fig. 224 (Lime tree, American linden, lin, 

bee tree) : Wood light, soft, stiff but 
not strong, of fine texture, and white 
to light brown color. The wood 
shrinks considerably in drying, works 
and stands well; it is used in carpen- 
try, in the manufacture of furniture 
and woodenware, both turned and 
carved, in cooperage, for toys, also 
for paneling of car and carriage bod- 
ies. Medium to large sized trees, com- 
mon in all Northern broad-leaved for- 
ests; found throughout the Eastern United States. 

135. Birch Fig. 225. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine 




Fig. 224. 




Fig. 225. 



Fig. 226. 



texture; sapwood whitish, heartwood in shades of brown with 
red and yellow; very handsome, with satiny luster, equaling 



COMMON WOODS. ' 143 

cherry. The wood shrinks considerably in drying, works and 
stands well and takes a good polish, but is not durable if exposed. 
Birch is used for finishing lumber in building, in the manufac- 
ture of furniture, in woodturnery for spools, boxes, wooden 
shoes, etc., for shoe lasts and pegs, for wagon hubs, ox yokes, 
etc., also in wood carving. The birches are medium sized trees, 
form extensive forests northward and occur scattered in all 
broad-leaved forests of the Eastern United States. 

136 Butternut.— Fig. 226. (White Walnut.) Wood very 
similar to black walnut, but light, quite soft, not strong and of 
light brown color. Used chiefly for finishing lumber, cabinet 
work and cooperage. Medium sized tree, largest and most com- 
mon in the Ohio basin; Maine to Minnesota and southward to 
Georgia and Alabama. 




Fig. 227. 

137. Cherry.— Fig. 227. Wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine 
texture : sapwood yellowish white, heartwood reddish to brown. 
The wtood shrinks considerably in drying, works and stands well, 
takes a good polish, and is much esteemed for its beauty. Cher- 
ry is used chiefly as a decorative finishing lumber for buildings, 
cars and boats, also for furniture and for turnery. It is becom- 
ing too costly for many purposes for which it is naturally suited. 
The lumber-furnishing cherry of this country, the wild black 
cherry, is a small to medium sized tree, scattered through many 



144 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




of the broad-leaved woiods of the western slope of the Alleghan- 
ies, but found from Michigan to Forida and west to Texas. 

138. Chestnut — Fig. 22S. Wood light, moderately soft, stiff, 

not strong, of coarse texture; 
the sapwood light, the heart- 
wood darker brown. It shrinks 
and checks considerably in dry- 
ing, works easily, stands well, 
and is very durable. Used in 
cabinet work, cooperage, for 
railway ties, telegraph poles, 
and locally in heavy construc- 
tion. Medium sized tree very 
common in the AUeghanies, oc- 

FiG. 228. curs from Maine to Michigan 

and southward to Alabama. 

139. Elm,— Fig. 229. Wood heavy, hard, strong, very tough; 

moderately durable in 
contact with the soil ; 
commonly cross-grain- 
ed, difficult to split 
and shape, warps and 
checks considerably in 
drying, but stands well 
if properly handled. 
The broad sapwood 
whitish, heart brown. 

Fig. 229. both shades of gray 

and red; on split surface rough, texture coarse to fine, capable 
of high polish. Elm is used in the construction of cars, wag- 
ons, etc., in boat and ship building, for agricultural implements 
and machinery ; in rough cooperage, saddlery, and harness work, 
but particularly in the manufacture of all kinds of furniture, 
where the beautiful figures, especially of the tangential or bas- 
tard section, are just beginning to be duly appreciated. The 
elms are medium to large sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, 




COMMON WOODS. 



145 



with stout trunk, form no forests of pure growth, but are found 
scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of our country. 

140. Gum.— This general term refers to two kinds of wood 
usually distinguished as sweet or red gum, and sour, black, or 
tupelo gum, the former being a relajtive of the witch-hazel, the 
latter belonging to the dogwood family. 

Sweet Gum. Fig. 230. (red gum, liquidambar) ; Wood rather 

heavy, rather soft, quite 
stifif and strong, tough, com- 
monly cross-grained, of fine 
texture; the broad sapwood 
whitish, the heartwood red- 
dish brown ; the wood warps 
and shrinks considerably, 
but does not check badly, 
stands well when fully seas- 
oned, and takes good polish. 
Sweet gum is used in car- 
pentry, in the manufacture 
of furniture, for cut veneer, 
for wooden plates, plaques, 
baskets, etc., also for wagon hubs, hat blocks, etc. A large sized 
tree, very abundant, often the principal tree in the swampy 
parts of the bottoms of the Lower Mississippi Valley; occurs 
from New York to Texas and 
from Indiana to Florida. 

141. Hickory— Fig. 23 L. Wood 
very heavy, hard and strong, 
proverbially tough, of rather 
coarse texture, smooth and of 
straight grain. The broad sap- 
wood white, the heart reddish 
nut brown. It dries slowly, 
shrinks and checks considerably, 
is not durable in the ground, or 
if exposed, and, especially the 
sapwood, is always subject to 




Fig. 23( 




146 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



the inroads of boring insects. Hickory excels as carriage and 
wagon stock, but is also extensively used in the manufacture of 
implements and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, for 
harness work and cooperage. The hickories are tall trees with 
slender stems, never form forests, occosionally small grovs, but 
usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suit- 
able localities. 

Hickory excels as carriage and wagon stock, but is also ex- 
tensively used in the manufacture of implements and machinery, 
for tool handles, timber pins, for harness work and cooperage. 
The hickories are tall trees with slender stems, never form for- 
ests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur scattered 
among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities. 

142. Maple. — Fig. 232. Wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and 

tough, of fine texture, 
frequently wavy grain- 
ed, thus giving rise 
to "curly" and blister" 
figures ; not durable 
in the ground or other- 
wise exposed. Maple 
is creamy white, with 
shades of light brown 
in the heart; shrinks 
moderately, seasons, 
works and stands well, 
wears smoothly and 
takes fine polish. The 
wood is used for ceil- 
ing, flooring, paneling, 
stairway and other finishing lumber in house, ship and car con- 
struction ; it is used for the keels of boats and ships, in the man- 
ufacture of implements and machinery, but especially for furni- 
ture, where entire chamber sets of maple rival those of oak. 
Maple is also used for shoe lasts and other form blocks, for shoe 
pegs, for piano actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show 
bill printing, tool handles, wood carving, turnery and scroll work. 




Fig. 232. 



COMMON WOODS. 



147 




Fig. 233. 



The maples are medium sized trees, of fairly rapid growth; 
sometimes form forests and frequently constitute a large pro- 
portion of the arborescent growth. 

143. Oak.— Fig. ?33. Wood very variable, usually very 

heavy and hard, very strong 
and tough, porous, and of 
coarse texture ; the sapwood 
whitish, the heart "oak" 
y^^—~-.^CAi brown to reddish brown. 
^^^-By' It shrinks and checks bad- 
j{.^' ly, giving trouble in season- 
ing, but stands well, is dur- 



able and little subject to at- 
tacks of insects. Oak is 
used for many purposes ; in 
shipbuilding, for heavy con- 
struction, in common car- 
pentry, in furniture, car and wagon work, cooperage, turnery, 
and even in wood carving ; also in the manufacture of all kinds of 
farm implements, wooden mill machinery, for piles and wharves, 
railway ties, etc. The oaks are medium to large sized trees, form- 
ing the predominant part of a large portion of our broad-leaved 
forests, so that these are generally "oak forests" though they al- 
ways contain a considerable proportion of other kinds of trees. 
Three well marked kinds, white, red, and live oak are distin- 
guished and kept separate in the market. Of the two principal 
kinds, white oak is the stronger, tougher,. less porous, and more 
durable. Red oak is usually of coarser texture, more porous, 
often brittle, less durable, and even more troublesome in season- 
ing than white oak. In carpentry and furniture work, red oak 
brings about the same price at present as white oak. The red 
oaks everywhere accompany the white oaks, and like the latter, 
are usually represented by several species in any given locality. 
Live oak, once largely employed in shipbuiding, possesses all the 
good qualities (except that of size) of the white oak, even to a 
greater degree. It is one of the heaviest, hardest and most dur- 
able building timbers of this country ; in structure it resembles 
the red oak but is much less porous. 



148 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



144. Sycamore.-Fig. 234 (button wood, button-ball tree, water 
beech) : Wood moderately heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, tough, 
usually crossgrained, of coarse texture, and white to light brown 
color; the wood is hard to split and work, shrinks moderately, 
warps and checks considerably but stands well. It is used ex- 
tensively for drawers, backs, bottoms, etc., in cabinetwork, for 
tobacco boxes, in Cooperage, and also for finishing lumber, where 
it has too long been underrated. A large tree, of rapid growth, 
common and largest in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, at home 
in nearly all parts of the eastern United States. 





Fig. 234. 



Fig. 235. 



145. Tulip Wood. — Fig. 285. Tulip tree, (yellow poplar, 
white wood) : Wood quite variable in weight, usually light, soft, 
stiff but not strong, of fine ;exture, and yellowish color ; the wood 
shrinks considerably, but seasons without much injury; works 
and stands remarkably well. Used for siding, for paneling, and 
finishing lumber in house, car and shipbuilding, for sideboards 
and panels of wagons and carriages ; also in the manufacture of 
furniture, implements and machinery, for pump logs, and almost 
every kind of common woodenware, boxes, shelving, drawers, 
etc. An ideal wood for the carver and to}^ man. A large tree, 
does not form forests, but is quite common, especially in the 
Ohio basin ; occurs from New England to Missouri and south- 
ward to Florida. 



COMMON WOODS. 



149 



146. Walnut.-Fig. 23f^. Black Walnut. Wood heavy, hard, 
strong, of coarse texture; the narrow sapwood whitish, the 
heartwood chocolate brown. The wtood shrinks moderately in 
drying, works and stands well, takes a good polish, is quite 
handsome, and has been for a long time the favorite cabinet 




Fig. 236. 



wolod in this country. Walnut formerly used, even for fencing, 
has become too costly for ordinary uses, and is to-day employed 
largely as a veneer, for inside finish and cabinet work, also for 
turnery, for gunstocks, etc. Black walnut is a large tree, with 
stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant 
throughout the Alleghany region, occurring from New England 
to Texas, and from Michigan to Florida. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



Wood Finishing. 



147, Wood Finishes. — Finishes are applied to wood 
surfaces (i) that the wood may be preserved, (2) that 
the appearance may be enhanced. 

Finishing matrials may be classed under one or the 
other of the following: Filler, stain, wax, varnish, oil, 
paint. These materials may be used singly upon a piece 
of wood or they may be combined in various ways to pro- 
duce results desired. 

148. Brushes, — Good brushes are made of bristles of 




Fig. 237. 

the wild boar of Russia and China. These 
bristles are set in cement and are firmly 
bound by being wrapped with wire in 
round brushes or enclosed in metal in flat 
brushes. Fi^. 237. 

A large brush, called a duster, is used 
for removing dust or loose dirt from the 
wood. Fig. 238. Small brushes, used for tracing, usually 
have chiseled edges, Fig. 239. 




Fig. 238. 



WOOD FINISHING. 



151 




Fig. 239. 



Bristle brushes are expensive and should be well cared 
for. Brushes that have been used in shellac and are not 
soon to be used again should be cleaned by rinsing them 

thoroughly in a cup of alcohol. This 

alcohol may be used later for thin- 
ning shellac. 

Varnish and paint brushes should 

be cleaned in turpentine. If they 
are to be laid away for some time, a strong soap 
suds, or lather made from some of the soap powders, 
should be well worked into the brush, after the pre- 
liminary cleansing. It should then be carefuly pressed 
into proper shape and laid away flat on a shelf. When 
the brush is to be used again, it should first be washed 
out, to get rid of all the soap. 

Brushes that are used from day to 
day shonld be kept suspended, when 

not in use, as in 

Fig. 240, so that 

their bristles 

shall be kept 

moist, without 

their touching 

the bottom of 

the bucket or 

can. 

Since alcohol evaporates rapidly, shellac cans with cone 
tops should be used or, better, a can in which the brush 
handle may extend through the top. 

Fig. 241 shows a can which is made double. Varnish 
is kept in the inner portion and water in the outer ring. 




Fig. 240. 




152 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



The cover fits over the inner can and into the water space, 
thus sealing the varnish air-tight but removing all danger 
of the cover's sticking to the sides of the can. The brush 
is suspended from the ''cleaning wire" so that its bristles 
rest in the liquid. 

If delicate woods are to be varnished, stone or glass 
jars would better be used to hold the liquid, for metal dis- 
colors it slightly. 

149, General Directions for Using Brush.— ( i ) Hold 

the brush as in Fig. 242. (2) Dip the end of the brush 
in the liquid to about one-third the length of 
the bristles. (3) Wipe off the surplus liquid 
on the edge of the can, wiping both sides of the 
brush no more than is necessary to keep the 
liquid from dripping. A 
wire stretched across the 
can as in Fig. 243 pro- 
vides a better wiping 
place for the dripping 
brush. In wiping the 
brush on the edge of the 
can, some of liquid is 
likely to ''run" down the outside. (4) Using the end of the 
brush, apply the liquid near one end of the surface to be 
covered. (5) "Brush" in the direction of the grain. (6) 
Work towards and out over the end of the board, leveling 
the liquid to a smooth film of uniform thinness. The 
strokes should be "feathered," that is, the brush should 
be lowered gradually at the beginning of the sweep and 
raised gradually at the close, otherwise, ugly "laps" will 
result. The reason for working out over the ends rather 





Fig. 242. 



Fig. 243. 



WOOD FINISHING. 153 

than from them will appear with a little thought. (7) 
Now work toward the second end. The arrows, Fig. 244, 
show the general directions of the final or feathering 
strokes. 

Edges are usually covered first and adjoining surfaces 

afterward. 

It frequently happens that surplus liquid runs over a 
finished surface, especially when working near the arrises. 
This surplus can be ''picked up" by wiping the brush up- 




FiG. 244. 

on the wire of the bucket until the bristles are quite free 
of liquid, and giving the part affected a feathering sweep. 

If the object has an internal corner, work from that 
out over the neighboring surfaces. 

Panels and sunk places should be covered first. After- 
ward, the raised places, such as stiles, rails, etc., may be 
attended to. Wherever possible the work should be laid 
flat so that the liquid may be flowed on • horizontally. 
This is of especial advantage in varnishing. Vertical 
work should always be begun at the top and carried 
downward. 

Tracing consists in working a liquid up to a given line 
but not over it, such as painting the sash of a window. 
Tracing requires a steady hand and some practice. A small 




154 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

brush is generally used and the stroke is made as nearly 
continuous as the flow of the liquid will allow. Fig. 245. 
150, Fillers,— Fillers are of two kinds, paste and liquid. 
They are used to fill up the wood pores and thus give 
a smooth, level, non-absorbent surface, 
upon which other coverings may be 
placed. Paste fillers are for use upon 
coarse grained woods such as oak and 
chestnut, while liquid fillers are for close 
grained woods such as Georgia pine. 
Fillers are not a necessity, especially 
iG. 45. ^j^^ liquid, but the saving affected by 

their use is considerable. Not only are they cheaper than 
varnish but one or two coats of filler will take the place 
and permit a saving of two or three coats of the more ex- 
pensive material. 

Liquid filler should be applied evenly with a brush and 
allowed to dry twenty-four hours, after which it may b^ 
sanded smooth with No. 00 paper. It is used mainly up- 
on large work such as porch ceilings and interior finish, 
like Georgia pine. On fine cabinet work, one or two coats 
of thin white shellac is used as a filler upon close grained 
wood. Shellac forms a surface which after twenty-four 
hours, can be sandpapered so as to make a very smooth 
surface. Varnish applied to the bare wood has a tendency 
to darken and discolor it. Filling with shellac preserves 
the natural color. 

Paste filler is sold by the pound in cans of various 
sizes. The best fillers are made of ground rock crystal 
mixed with raw linseed oil, japan and turpentine. 

For preserving the natural color of the wood, filler is 



WOOD FINISHING. 155 

left white; for Flemish, it is colored brown; for antique 
and weathered finishes, it is dark. Fillers can be pur- 
chased ready colored. 

151, FUling with Paste Filler,— (i) Thin the filler 
with turpentine until it makes a thin paste. (2) With a 
stiff-bristled brush, force the filler into the pores of the 
wood and leave the surface covered with a thin coating. 
(3) Allow this to stand until the filler has ''flatted," 
that is, until the "gloss" has disappeared and the filler 
becomes dull and chalkish. The time required for this 
to take place varies. Twenty minutes is not unusual. (4) 
Rub the filler off just as soon as it has flatted — do not let 
it stand longer, for the longer it stands the harder it is to 
remove. Rub across the grain as much as is possible, 
using a wad of excelsior. Finish fine work by going 
over it a second time with a cloth, rubbing with the grain 
as well as across, that the "high lights" may be clear of 
filler. 

On fine work use a felt pad to rub the filler into the 
pores, and rub off with a cloth only. 

Twenty- four hours should be allowed the filler to hard- 
en. One filling is sufficient for ordinary work; on fine 
work the above process is sometimes repeated after the 
first filling has hardened. 

The striking contrasts in the grain of wood such as 
oak and chestnut, obtained by the use of colored fillers, 
are due to the dark filler's remaining in the open grain 
but being wiped off of the close grain — the "high lights." 

On quarter-sawed oak, each flake is sometimes sanded 
with fine paper. No. 00, to remove the stain that the con- 
trast may be sharper. 



156 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

Excelsior and rags used in cleaning off filler must not 
be allowed to lie around but must be burned for they are 
subject to spontaneous combustion and are dangerous. 

152. Stains. — Stains are used to darken the high lights 
of wood preparatory to the application of a relatively 
darker filler. By varying the intensity of the stain 
different results may be obtained with the same color of 
filler. Stains are also used without fillers. 

There are three kinds of stains: (i) water, (2) oil, 
(3) spirit. Each kind has its advantag^es and its disad- 
vantages. 

Wood stains are cheap, penetrate the wood deeply, and 
are transparent. They cause the grain of the wood to 
''rough up," however, and for this reason are used mainly 
upon hard woods which require darkening before the 
application of a filler. The wood is sanded before the 
filler is applied. Where water stain is not to be followed 
by filler, it is customary to thoroughly moisten the sur- 
face to be covered with water alone. After this has dried, 
the surface is sanded with fine paper and the stain ap- 
plied. The stain does not raise the grain as it otherwise 
would. 

Water stains may be applied with a brush or a sponge. 
They are sometimes heated that they may enter the wood 
more deeply. Any coloring matter that can be dissolved 
in water will make a wood dye or stain. 

Oil stains, like water stains, are often used to stain 
wood before filling. They are more generally used where 
no filling is desired. They are easier to apply evenly than 
water or spirit stains. They do not raise the grain of 
the wood like the other stains. On the other hand, they 



WOOD FINISHING. 157 

do not penetrate and therefore cannot color hard woods 
dark. Neither do they give the clear effects. 

Most oil stains are applied with a brush, after which 
the surface of the wood is immediately wiped clean with 
a cloth. 

Spirit stains are but little used where surfaces of any 
size are to be covered. They are expensive, fade easily, 
and are hard to apply evenly. 

They are applied with a brush and dry very quickly. 

A stain which penetrates deeply and is clear is obtained 
by placing the wood in a closed receptacle in which is 
placed a dish of concentrated ammonia. The fumes of 
this Hquid cause a chemical change to take place, giving 
to the wood a rich nut-brown color. 

153, Waxing,— An old finish that has recently become 
popular is that of waxing. It takes the place of the var- 
nish, by which it was supplanted years ago. 

Wax finish is easily appHed and is cheaper than var- 
nish. It will not stand wetting. However, it is easily re- 
paired. 

Our ancestors used to make wax polish by "cutting" 
beeswax with turpentine. 

Rapid drying and hardening waxes can be purchased 
now-a-days. They require a smooth surface and a very 
thin application for a successful result. Too much wax 
upon a rough surface will produce very ugly, white, chalk- 
like spottings as the wax dries. These are especially 
noticeable upon dark finishes. Waxes colored black over- 
come this but are not needed if the ordinary wax is prop- 
erly applied. 

In finishing with wax the following directions may be 

12 



158 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

followed: (i) Stain the wood, if a very dark finish is de- 
sired. (2) If the wood is coarse-grained, put on two coats 
of paste filler and rub it off carefully, that a smooth sur- 
face may be prepared. Allow the stain twelve hours in 
which to dry, also each coat of the filler. (3) With a soft 
cloth apply as thin a coating of wax as can be and yet 
cover the wood. Wax is in paste form. (4) Allow this to 
stand five or ten minutes, then rub briskly with a soft dry 
cloth to polish. ( 5 ) After this coat has stood for twenty- 
four hours another may be applied in the same manner. 

A thin coat of shellac brushed evenly upon the hard- 
ened filler ^'brings out" the grain and makes an excellent 
base for wax as well as varnish. It should stand twenty- 
four hours and then be sanded smooth with No. 00 sand- 
paper before the wax is applied. 

There are other patent preparations which give the 
same soft effects as wax and are as easily applied — in 
fact, some of them are but wax in liquid form. 

154. Varnishes,— Varnishes are used where a hard 
transparent coating is desired. There are two kinds, ( i ) 
shellac or spirit varnish, (2) copal or oil varnish. 

Varnishes vary greatly in quality and therefore in price. 
If made of specially selected pale gum for use on light or 
white woods the price will be higfher than for that of or- 
dinary color tho the quality may be no higher. 

Rubbing varnishes are so made that they may take a 
"rubbed finish." 

Varnishing should be done in a room in which the 
temperature can be kept from 70 to 80 degrees Fahr., and 
which is comparatively free from dust. The surface to 
be covered must be clean, dry and filled even and smooth. 



WOOD FINISHING. 159 

155, Shellac, — Shellac or spirit varnish is a solution of 
lac and alcohol. Lac is soluble in both grain and wood 
alcohol but grain alcohol is preferable. Beds of crude lac 
are found in parts of Africa and South America where 
the lac has been left by the decay of leaves and twigs 
which it at one time encrusted. Crude lac is deposited up- 
on leaves and twigs of certain of the lac-bearing trees by 
countless numbers of insects which draw out the sap. 

Stick-lac is crude lac which has been purified somewhat 
of the bodies and eggs of the insects and rolled into stick 
forms. When crushed and washed it is known as seed- 
lac. When fully purified, which is done by melting and 
straining, it is spread out and is known as shellac. 

White shellac is obtained by bleaching. Orange shellac 
is unbleached. Pure white shellac is used where the more 
yellow shellac would discolor. Orange shellac is stronger 
than white and will last longer but is harder to apply be- 
cause it sets more rapidly. 

Shellac varnish sets quickly, dries hard but softens un- 
der moisture. Unlike oil varnish, it does not "level up'* 
and must, therefore, be brushed on quickly, using long, 
even strokes. No spots must be omitted for they cannot 
be "touched up." 

156, Shellac Finishes. — The use of one or more coats 
of shellac preparatory to a varnish finish has been noted. 

A very simple finish, and one that is easily applied, is 
obtained by covering stained wood with a very thin coat 
of shellac. 

To obtain the finish known as egg-shell gloss, ( i ) Coat 
the smooth wood with from three to six applications of 
thin shellac. Allow each coat twenty-four hours in which 



160 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

to harden. (2) Rub to a smooth surface each hardened 
coat using curled hair or fine steel wool or fine oiled sand- 
paper. 

157, Oil or Copal Varnishes, — Oil varnish is com- 
posed of copal gum, boiled oil and turpentine. Copal 
gums are obtained from Africa mainly, in certain parts 
of which they are found as fossil resins, the remains of 
forests which once covered the ground. 

Pressed flaxseed furnish crude linseed oil while the 
long leaf pine of the South, furnishes the turpentine pitch. 

The oil is prepared for use by boiling it in huge kettles 
with different materials which cause it to change chemi- 
cally. It is then put away to settle and age, that is to clear 
and purify itself. It takes from one to six months for the 
oil to reach a proper degree of clearness and purity. Tur- 
pentine is obtained from its pitch by distillation. 

The copal gums are melted and boiled thoroly with 
the oil. Turpentine is added after the mixture of gum 
and oil has cooled sufficiently. The whole is then strained 
several times, placed in tanks to age or ripen. From 
one month to a year, or even more, is required. 

The quality of varnish depends upon the qualities of 
the gums, the proportion of oil and turpentine and the 
care which is exercised in the boiling process. 

158, Flowing Copal Varnish. — (i) Lay on the var- 
nish quickly in a good heavy coat. Use a good varnish 
brush and dip the bristles deeply into the liquid, wiping 
them off just enough to prevent dripping. (2) Wipe the 
bristles quite free of varnish ; go over the surface and 
pick up as much of the surplus liquid as the brush will 
hold. Replace the varnish in the can by wiping the 



WOOD FINISHING. 161 

bristles on the wire of the can. Repeat until the entire 
surface has been left with but a thin smooth coating. 

Two, three, four or more coats are applied in this 
manner, forty-eight hours being allowed between each 
for drying. Dry varnish comes off in sanding as a white 
powder; if not dry it will come off on the sandpaper as 
little black spots. 

159, Typical Finishes for Coarse-Grained Woods 
— Egg-Shell gloss : ( I ) One coat of water stain, English, 
golden, etc., according to the result desired. (2) Allow 
time to dry, then sandpaper lightly with fine sandpaper. 
This is to smooth the grain and to bring up the high- 
lights by removing stain from some of the wood. Use 
No. 00 sandpaper and hold it on the finger tips. (3) 
Apply a second coat of the stain diluted about one-half 
with water. This will throw the grain into still higher 
relief and thus produce a still greater contrast. Apply this 
coat of stain very sparingly, using a rag. Should this 
stain raise the grain, again rub lightly with fine worn 
sandpaper, just enough to smooth. (4) When this has 
dried, put on a light coat of thin shellac. Shellac pre- 
cedes filling that it may prevent the high lights — the solid 
parts of wood — from being discolored by the stain in the 
filler, and thus causing a muddy effect. The shellac be- 
ing thin does not interfere with the filler's entering the 
pores of the open grain. ( 5 ) Sand lightly with fine sand- 
paper. (6) Fill with paste filler colored to match the 
stain. (7) Cover this with a coat of orange shellac. This 
coat of shellac might be omitted but another coat of var- 
nish must be added. (8) Sandpaper lightly. (9) Apply 
two or three coats of varnish. ( 10) Rub the first coats 



162 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

with hair cloth or curled hair and the last with pulver- 
ized pumice stone and crude oil or raw linseed oil. 

Dull finish : A dead surface is obtained by rubbing the 
varnish after it has become bone dry, with powdered 
pumice stone and water, using a piece of rubbing felt. 
Rub until the surface is smooth and even being careful 
not to cut thru by rubbing too long at any one spot. The 
edges are most likely to be endangered. Use a wet sponge 
and chamois skin to clean off the pumice. 

Polished finish : The last coat should be rubbed first 
with pulverized pumice stone and water, and then with 
rotten stone and water. For a piano finish rub further 
with a mixture of oil and a little pulverized rotten stone, 
using a soft felt or flannel. A rotary motion is generally 
used and the mixture is often rubbed with the bare hand. 

Gloss finish : For a gloss finish, the last coat is not 
rubbed at all. 

160. Patching, — It frequently happens in rubbing with 
pumice that the varnish is cut thru so that the bare 
wood shows. To patch such a spot proceed as follows: 
( I ) Sandpaper the bare place lightly with very fine paper, 
No. oo, to smooth the grain of the wood raised by the 
pumice water. (2) If the wood has been stained or filled, 
color the spot to match the rest of the finish. Apply a 
little with a cloth and wipe off clean. (3) When this has 
dried, apply a thin coat of varnish to the bare wood, care- 
fully. Draw it out beyond the bare wood a little, ''feath- 
ering" it so that there shall not be a ridge. (4) Allow 
this to dry hard and apply a second coat, feathering it 
beyond the surface covered by the first coat. (5) Re- 
peat until the required thickness has been obtained; then 



WOOD FINISHING. 163 

(6) rub with pumice and water. Rub lightly, using a 
little pumice and much water. The slightly raised rings 
made by the lapping of one coat upon another will need 
special attention. It is best not to sandpaper between 
coats, because of the danger of scratching the rubbed fin- 
ish adjoining the patch. 

161. Painting, — The purpose of paints is to preserve 
the wood by covering it with an opaque material. Paints 
are usually composed of white lead or zinc oxide and 
coloring materials mixed or thinned with raw or boiled 
linseed oil. Turpentine is also used for thinning and as 
a drying agent. 

Paint must be well brushed out so that a thin film may 

result. 

In painting, ( I ) Cover the knots with shellac, or the oil 
of the paint will be absorbed thru two or three coats 
and a discoloration result. (2) Put on a prime coat. 
This coat should be mixed as thin as it can be and still 
not "run" when applied to vertical surfaces. (3) Fill 
the nail holes with putty. Sand lightly if a smooth fin- 
ish is desired. (4) Apply two or three coats of paint thin 
enough to flow freely but thick enough to cover well and 
not "run." 

The second coat is given a little more than the usual 
amount of turpentine that a "flat effect" may prepare the 
way for the final gloss coat. If the last coat is to be dull, 
turpentine is used in it as well as the second. Oil causes 
gloss, turpentine causes a dull or flat effect. 



APPENDIX I. 



Additional Joints. 




E,viTr JoinT 




MoJ^fDerJoiQt 




ToeH6^\iJo\aT 




Civjed. aad Blocked Joi'fzT 




I)owelecl BuTT JoiqT 




Drcyw Bolt Joiner 



Plate 1. 



APPENDIX. 



165 




'ricWd^p Join.17 





Lesppecl hoMZ-TQW Joint: 




Ledqe or "R'abDeT 




Gained Joii?.t. 




T b r o >ob>b- -^ orti 5 e /■. Ten otT. 



Plate 2. 



166 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




bt\s\j AorTv^e ^'Vcn.OVL 




I)ouL'le MorTi3espod lenon 





T'mRcd.KorT/se &Tcuon.. 



Wed o€ct^orri:>e Zkleiiorz 

Plate 3. 




5 1 i |d Jo I n 




ft)x T6.i( Tenon. 



APPENDIX. 



167 





J)ov€-Td.i iMorhbc ScTenon 



Tu ok Ten on. 




Stretchier Jo iqT: 



Ledpe and M.ter Joint 



>4 




Stretch e r Jo I nT? 




^pUncnrcr. 



Plate 4. 



168 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




DoveT(^il Dcixdo. 




Ld^f>f)ed * 5trd^\>\>c<i JoiaT 




T\3he(iJo'\aT-f\ 



ri3hed /oinr-B* 




Plate 5. 



APPENDIX. 



169 




'Scesrf join.r" 




Thrusrjoinr-A 



Bevel -N3h cj I d e r Joi qT 

Plate 6. 




TDrvjsT joint 



170 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 




5p\ine. Jo I at* 




Mistched yoinT. 




Rcxbl72T(?a Zc Fi II 1 5rereclJoii7r 




APPENDIX 11. 
Wood Finishing Recipes. 

1, Wax,— Cut up beeswax and add to it about one- 
third of its volume of turpentine. Heat to the boihng 
point in a double boiler. Or, melt a quantity of beeswax 
and to this add an equal quantity of turpentine. Care 
must be taken that the turpentine shall not catch fire. 

2, Water Stains,— Any coloring matter that is soluble 
in water will make a stain. 

Mahogany : Three quarts of boiling water, one ounce 
of Bismarck-brown aniline. 

Brown : Extract of logwood, the size of a walnut, dis- 
solved by boiling in four ounces of water. Apply hot and 
repeat until the desired color is obtained. 

Black : First stain the wood brown with the logwood 
solution. Coat this with a stain prepared as follows: 
Soak a teaspoonful of cast iron filings in four ounces of 
acetic acid or vinegar. Allow it to stand for a week, 
stirring it occasionally. 

Walnut : Make a strong solution of powdered bicrom- 
ate of potash and hot water. Over this stain, apply a coat 
of the logwood stain. 

3, Oil Stains,— Coach colors ground in Japan when 
thinned with turpentine make good stain. Mix in the 
proportion of one-half gallon of turpentine to one pound 
of color and add a little boiled oil. Colors commonly 



172 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

used are drop black, Vandyke brown, medium chrome 
yellow, burnt and raw umber and burnt and raw sienna. 

Green : Drop-black, two parts, medium chrome yellow, 
one part, a little red to kill the brightness. 

Walnut: Asphaltum with a little Venetian red. 

Golden oak: Asphaltum and turpentine thinned like 
water, to be followed with filler darkened with burnt um- 
ber and black. 

Antique oak : Raw sienna properly thinned, with a little 
burnt umber and black added. 

I [4, Spirit Stains, 

Black : Alcohol and aniline black. 

Mahogany : Alcohol and Bismark brown. 

Aniline stains cut with alcohol, and mixed with white 
shellac and banana oil or amyl alcohol in equal parts make 
good stains for small pieces of work. 



APPENDIX III. 



Working Drawings. . 

A working drawing of an object consists of one or 
more views of that object so drawn that they make known' 
the size, shape, kind of material, etc. 

A working drawing differs from a perspective. The 




Fig. 1. 



former represents an object as it really is, the second, 
represents the object as it appears. Fig. i. 
1. Instruments. — Special instruments are required for 




Fig. 2. 



the making of a mechanical drawing. Fig. 2 shows a 
drawing-board with paper fastened to it, also a T-square 



13 



174 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



and the two triangles. A compass is needed for drawing 
circles and arcs of circles. 

The T-square is used for drawing horizontal lines. 
The head must be held firmly against the edge of the 
board and the lines drawn from left to right. Vertical 
and oblique lines are drawn from the T-square upward, 
the triangles being held against the edge of the T-square 
which, at the same time, is held against the edge of the 
board. 

2. Conventions. — Since it would be impossible to 
make full-sized drawings of some objects — a house for 




Fig. 3. 

instance — it is customary to use a scale and by means of 
it make a smaller drawing, which shall have all of its 
parts properly proportioned. For example, if a drawing 
has printed upon it ">^ inch=i inch," it means for every 
inch of the object the drawing is but one-half an inch. 



APPENDIX. 175 

The scale is to be used for measuring only.. There is 
quite a variety of scales. Whatever scale is used, the 
numbers placed upon the drawing must represent the size 
of the object and not of the drawing. 

In Fig. 3 is shown a mechanical drawing of a common 
wood spool. It will be seen that there are different kinds 
of lines. Each has its meaning, as follows : 



/ 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 



1. Light line — For penciling and cross-hatching. 

2. Full line — For visible outlines of objects and limits of 

parts. 

3. Heavy line — For border lines. 

4. Dot line — For invisible outlines of objects and limits 

of invisible parts. Same width as 2. 

5. Dash line — For projection lines. Same width as i. 

6. Long dash line — For dimension lines. Same width 

as I. 

7. Dot-and-dash line — For center lines and section lines. 

Same width as i. 

When there is not room for the figures that represent 
dimensions, the arrow heads may be turned in the direc- 



176 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



tion of the measurement and placed outside. The figure, 
too, may be placed outside if necessary. 

Nothing but the letters, the figures and the barbs — not 




oeci ion. 



Fig. 5. Fig. 4. 

the shafts — of the arrow are drawn free-hand. 

Sometimes, it is desirable to have one dimension short- 
er than the scale selected would allow; this is done by 





ax 



^=?r- 



FiG. 6. 



"^ 



means of a broken view : Fig. 4. The figured dimension 
prevents confusion. 

In Fig. 5, is shown a sectional drawing. Sectional 



APPENDIX. 



\77 



drawings represent an object as it would appear if cut, 
with the part nearer the worker removed. Sections are 
indicated by "cross hatching," the lines being equally 
spaced and drawn at an angle of 45 degrees. 
Screws and nails are represented as in Fig. 6. 



A li 



f f 



TojD View 



A-b- 



^2 9 S-/2 4c a: 

Leftside View Tf-oiit View^ RighLtoi^e VicW 

Fig. 7. 

3. Projection and Relation of Views.— The names 
and the relative positions of three views are shown in 
Fig. 7. From these it will be seen ( i ) that the different 
views are arranged with reference to the front view, so 
that the part of a side view which is nearest the front 
view represents a part of the front of the object, (2) that 
the corresponding horizontal measurements of top and 
front views are alike, ( 3 ) that the corresponding vertical 
measurements of front and side views are alike, (4) that 
the corresponding vertical measurements of the top view 
and horizontal measurements of a side view are alike. 

4. Letters and Figures. — Letters are usually made 
freehand, light ruled lines at the top and bottom acting 



178 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



as guides. A simple style of letter and figure is shown 
in Fig. 8. They are placed in spaces that the proportion 
of the parts may the more readily be seen. They may be 
narrowed or widened by changing the width of the 




Fig. 8. 

spaces, and shortened or lengthened by changing the 
height of the space^. 

5. Constructions. — The hexagon, or six-sided figure ; 
the octagon, or eight-sided figure; and the ellipse are so 
very frequently used in simple woodwork, that their con- 
struction is given here. 

Directions for hexagon. Fig. 9: Describe a circle of a 




Fig. 9. 




size equal to the required distance of hexagon from cor- 
ner to corner. Draw the diameter A-B. With the point A 



APPENDIX. 



179 



as a center, vising the radius of the circle, cut the circle 
at I and 2. With B as a center, and the same radius, cut 
the circle at 3 and 4. Connect A-i, A-2, 2-3, etc. Con- 




FiG. 10. 

necting every other point, as A-3, 2-B, etc., makes a six- 
pointed star. 

Directions for octagon, Fig. 10: Draw a square with a 
width equal to the desired width of the octagon from side 
to side. Draw the diagonals. With the points A, B, C, 
and D as centers and a radius equal to one-half the diag- 
onal, cut the sides of the square at i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 
Connect these points as shown. 

Directions for ellipse. Fig. 11: An ellipse is a curve 




T.T T^. 



Fig. 11. 

such that the sum of the distances from any point on it to 

two fixed points called the focii shall always be the same. 

An easy way to construct such a curve is to place two 



180 



ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 



4- 



-M 



"^"" 



d 



f 



APPENDIX. 



181 



»|09 C 



00 



r)IO 



■*c- 



J 



r 

a' 




-fe- 



/f^ 






V^J 






182 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 

thumb tacks at the focii, attach the ends of a string to 
them. With a pencil moving freely in the string but hold- 
ing it taut draw the curve. By moving the tacks farther 
apart or closer together and by lengthening or shortening- 
the string, the size and shape of the curve may be changed 
as desired. 

6. Order of Procedure. — Beginners should strive to 
know and to acquire good practice in drawing. Before 
beginning see that the pencil is properly sharpened. 

( 1 ) Determine the size and spacings of the views so 
that the parts of the drawings may be properly placed. 

(2) With light full lines block out the different views. 
Blocking-out lines are made of indefinite length and the 
proper distances marked off on them after they are 
drawn. Holding the rule or scale upon the drawing ver- 
tically, mark off the vertical spaces. Draw light lines 
thru these points. Upon one of these horizontal lines 
lay off the horizontal spaces. Draw light vertical lines 
thru these points. Fig. 12. 

(3) Put on the dimensions. 

(4) Put on the lettering. 

(5) The drawing is ready for inking. In blocking- 
out, all lines are made full, light. In inking, the different 
kinds must be represented properly. Fig. 13. If it is not 
to be inked go over the lines that represent edges with the 
pencil a second time so that the outlines of the object will 
''stand out." 



Books on the Manual Arts 



Beginning Woodwork. At Home and in School. By 
CLINTON SHELDON VAN DEUSEN ; illustrated by 
Edwin Victor Lawrence. 

A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary 
benchwork in wood. This description is given through directions for making a few 
simple, useful articles suitable either for school or home problems. Even without a 
teacher a bright boy, by following this book faithfully, may acquire considerable skill. 
It is a safe guide for farmers' boys as well as for city boys, and is especially well suited 
for use in rural and village schools in which the teacher has had but little experience 
in the use of woodworking tools. The book is illustrated by more than one hundred 
figures, including ten plates of working drawings. Each of these figures is an orig- 
inal drawing made expressly for this book. Price, $1.00. 

Problems in Woodworking, By m. w. Murray. 

A convenient collection of good problems ready to place in the hands of the pupils. 
It consists of forty plates bound in heavy paper covers with brass fasteners. Each 
plate is a working drawing, or problem in bench work that has been successfully 
worked out by boys in one of the grades from seven to nine inclusive. Many of the 
problems can be worked out in various ways according to the individual ability, inter- 
est and taste of the pupil. Price, 75 cents. Board covers, 20 cents extra. 

Problems in Furniture Making. By fred d. craw- 

SHAW. 

This book consists of 32 plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and 
high schools and 24 pages of text, including chapters on design, construction and fin- 
ishes, and notes on the problems. Price, in heavy paper covers, $1.00. Board covers, 
20 cents extra. 

Problems in Mechanical Drawing. By charles a. 

BENNETT. With drawings made by Fred D. Crawshaw. 

This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes, and is bound in heavy 
paper covers with brass fasteners. Its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes be- 
ginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems. These 
have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique, the in- 
terest of the pupils, and the subjects usually included in a grammar and first-year high 
school course. The book covers simple projection — straight lines and circles, prob- 
lems involving tangents, planes of projection, revolution of solids, developments, in- 
tersections, isometric projection, lettering and working drawings. Each problem 
given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution. 

Price, $1.00. Board covers, 20 cents extra. 



Books on the Manual Arts 



Classroom Practice in Design. By james parton 

HANEY. 

A concise, up-to-date, richly illustrated booklet on the teaching of applied design. 
Very suggestive. Price, 50 cents. 

The Wash Method of Handling Water Colour. By 

FRANK FORREST FREDERICK. 

"This little book is a helpful guide and affords a stimulus to the use of water-color 
as practiced by the earlier painters, whose beautiful work is unexcelled." Price, 50 
cents. 



Manual Training Magazine. 



An illustrated, bi-monthly publication devoted to the interests of the Manual Arts in 
Education. Subscription price, $1.50 a year; single copies, 35 cents. In foreign 
countries, including Canada, $1.75 a year ; single copies, 40 cents. 




The Manual Arts Press 

Peoria, Illinois 



Muv 12 idoa 



